Primary Source Matter: ASU World History 11th Grade

PRIMARY SOURCES ASU: WORLD HISTORY ELEVENTH GRADE AUTUMN SEMESTER 2010-2011 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 1 OF 71 Contents Two Bulls of Pope Innocent IV Addressed to the Emperor of the Tartars ............................ 2 Excerpt from "Narrative of Brother Benedict The Pole” .............................................................. 5 Guyuk's Letter to Pope Innocent IV (1246) ..................................................................................... 9 Ibn al-Athir: On The Tatars, 1220-1221CE.................................................................................. 10 The Fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258 ............................................................................... 13 Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidaya wa Al-Nihaya, 14th century: The Fall of Baghdad (1258) ............. 15 Who Was Niccolò Machiavelli? .......................................................................................................... 17 Why Machiavelli Wrote The Prince .................................................................................................. 19 IX Of the Civil Principality De principatu civili ........................................................................... 24 X How the strength of all principalities should be measured [Quomodo omnium principatuum vires perpendi debeant] ........................................................................................... 26 XVII Of cruelty and mercy, and whether it is better to be loved than to be feared or the contrary [De crudelitate et pietate; et an sit melius amari quam timeri, vel e contra] .. 28 XVIII How a prince should keep his word [Quomodo fides a principibus sit servanda] 30 Erasmus, “Excluded from Heaven” (1514) .................................................................................... 32 Hernan Cortés: from Second Letter to Charles V, 1520 ........................................................... 58 Pedro de Cieza de Léon: Chronicles of the Incas, 1540 ............................................................ 67 Bartolome de las Casas: A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies [1542] ......... 69 Reign of Philip II ................................................................................................................................... 71 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 2 OF 71 Two Bulls of Pope Innocent IV Addressed to the Emperor of the Tartars1 1 I 2 GOD the Father, of His graciousness regarding with unutterable loving-kindness the unhappy 3 lot of the human race, brought low by the guilt of the first man, and desiring of His exceeding 4 great charity mercifully to restore him whom the devil's envy overthrew by a crafty suggestion, 5 sent from the lofty throne of heaven down to the lowly region of the world His only-begotten 6 Son, consubstantial with Himself, who was conceived by the operation of the Holy Ghost in the 7 womb of a fore-chosen virgin and there clothed in the garb of human flesh, and afterwards 8 proceeding thence by the closed door of His mother's virginity, He showed Himself in a form 9 visible to all men. For human nature, being endowed with reason, was meet to be nourished on 10 eternal truth as its choicest food, but, held in mortal chains as a punishment for sin, its 11 powers were thus far reduced that it had to strive to understand the invisible things of reason's 12 food by means of inferences drawn from visible things. The Creator of that creature became 13 visible, clothed in our flesh, not without change in His nature2, in order that, having become 14 visible. He might call back to Himself, the Invisible, those pursuing after visible things, 15 moulding men by His salutary instructions and pointing out to them by means of His teaching 16 the way of perfection: following the pattern of His holy way of life and His words of evangelical 17 instruction, He deigned to suffer death by the torture of the cruel cross, that, by a penal end to 18 His present life, He might make an end of the penalty of eternal death, which the succeeding 19 generations had incurred by the transgression of their first parent, and that man might drink 20 of the sweetness of the life of eternity from the bitter chalice of His death in time. For it 21 behoved the Mediator between us and God to possess both transient mortality and everlasting 22 beatitude, in order that by means of the transient He might be like those doomed to die and 23 might transfer us from among the dead to that which lasts for ever. 24 He therefore offered Himself as a victim for the redemption of mankind and, overthrowing the 25 enemy of its salvation, He snatched it from the shame of servitude to the glory of liberty, and 26 unbarred for it the gate of the heavenly fatherland. Then, rising from the dead and ascending 27 into heaven, He left His vicar on earth, and to him, after he had borne witness to the constancy 28 of his love by the proof of a threefold profession, He committed the care of souls, that he should 29 with watchfulness pay heed to and with heed watch over their salvation, for which He had 30 humbled His high dignity; and He handed to him the keys of the kingdom of heaven by which 31 he and, through him, his successors, were to possess the power of opening and of closing the 32 gate of that kingdom to all. Wherefore we, though unworthy, having become, by the Lord's 33 disposition, the successor of this vicar, do turn our keen attention, before all else incumbent 34 on us in virtue of our office, to your salvation and that of other men, and on this matter 35 especially do we fix our mind, sedulously keeping watch over it with diligent zeal and zealous 36 diligence, so that we may be able, with the help of God's grace, to lead those in error into the 37 way of truth and gain all men for Him. But since we are unable to be present in person in 38 different places at one and the same time for the nature of our human condition does not allow 39 this in order that we may not appear to neglect in any way those absent from us we send to 40 them in our stead prudent and discreet men by whose ministry we carry out the obligation of 41 our apostolic mission to them. It is for this reason that we have thought fit to send to you our 42 1 In Epistolae Saeculi xiii e regestis Pontificarum Romananim selectae, t. ii, Nos. 102 and 105, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. 2 Non sine commutatione nature. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 3 OF 71 beloved son Friar Laurence of Portugal and his companions of the Order of Friars Minor, the 43 bearers of this letter, men remarkable for their religious spirit, comely in their virtue and gifted 44 with a knowledge of Holy Scripture, so that following their salutary instructions you may 45 acknowledge Jesus Christ the very Son of God and worship His glorious name by practising the 46 Christian religion. We therefore admonish you all, beg and earnestly entreat you to receive 47 these Friars kindly and to treat them in considerate fashion out of reverence for God and for 48 us, indeed as if receiving us in their persons, and to employ unfeigned honesty towards them 49 in respect of those matters of which they will speak to you on our behalf; we also ask that, 50 having treated with them concerning the aforesaid matters to your profit, you will furnish them 51 with a safe-conduct and other necessities on both their outward and return journey, so that 52 they can safely make their way back to our presence when they wish. We have thought fit to 53 send to you the above-mentioned Friars, whom we specially chose out from among others as 54 being men proved by years of regular observance and well versed in Holy Scripture, for we 55 believed they would be of greater help to you, seeing that they follow the humility of our 56 Saviour: if we had thought that ecclesiastical prelates or other powerful men would be more 57 profitable and more acceptable to you we would have sent them. 58 Lyons, 5th March 1245 59 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 4 OF 71 II 1 Seeing that not only men but even irrational animals, nay, the very elements which go to make 2 up the world machine, are united by a certain innate law after the manner of the celestial 3 spirits, all of which God the Creator has divided into choirs in the enduring stability of peaceful 4 order, it is not without cause that we are driven to express in strong terms our amazement that 5 you, as we have heard, have invaded many countries belonging both to Christians and to 6 others and are laying them waste in a horrible desolation, and with a fury still unabated you do 7 not cease from stretching out your destroying hand to more distant lands, but, breaking the 8 bond of natural ties, sparing neither sex nor age, you rage against all indiscriminately with the 9 sword of chastisement. We, therefore, following the example of the King of Peace, and desiring 10 that all men should live united in concord in the fear of God, do admonish, beg and earnestly 11 beseech all of you that for the future you desist entirely from assaults of this kind and 12 especially from the persecution of Christians, and that after so many and such grievous 13 offences you conciliate by a fitting penance the wrath of Divine Majesty, which without doubt 14 you have seriously aroused by such provocation; nor should you be emboldened to commit 15 further savagery by the fact that when the sword of your might has raged against other men 16 Almighty God has up to the present allowed various nations to fall before your face; for 17 sometimes He refrains from chastising the proud in this world for the moment, for this reason, 18 that if they neglect to humble themselves of their own accord He may not only no longer put off 19 the punishment of their wickedness in this life but may also take greater vengeance in the 20 world to come. On this account we have thought fit to send to you our beloved son [John of 21 Piano Carpini] and his companions the bearers of this letter, men remarkable for their religious 22 spirit, comely in their virtue and gifted with a knowledge of Holy Scripture; receive them kindly 23 and treat them with honour out of reverence for God, indeed as if receiving us in their persons, 24 and deal honestly with them in those matters of which they will speak to you on our behalf, 25 and when you have had profitable discussions with them concerning the aforesaid affairs, 26 especially those pertaining to peace, make fully known to us through these same Friars what 27 moved you to destroy other nations and what your intentions are for the future, furnishing 28 them with a safe-conduct and other necessities on both their outward and return journey, so 29 that they can safely make their way back to our presence when they wish. 30 Lyons, 13 March 1245 31 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 5 OF 71 Excerpt from "Narrative of Brother Benedict The Pole” 1 IN THE Year of Our Lord 1245 Brother John of the Order of Friars Minor, named of Piano 2 Carpini, was sent to the Tartars by the Lord Pope, with another brother of the same Order, and 3 leaving Lyons in Gaul where the Pope was, he went to Poland and there at Vratislavia1 took a 4 third brother of the same Order, named Benedict, a Pole by race, to be his interpreter arid the 5 companion of his labour and cares. 6 With the help of Conrad, Duke of the Poles, they reached Kiev, a city of Russia, which is now 7 under the Tartar yoke, and the rulers of the city gave them guides for six days' journey to the 8 Tartar frontier guard on the borders of the Coman country. 9 When the captains of this frontier guard heard that they were envoys of the Pope, they asked 10 and received presents, and the two Friars John and Benedict left their companion, who was 11 sick, with the horses and servants that they had brought with them, and were taken on horses 12 provided by the Tartars with their baggage to the second camp. 13 And so by many camps and changes of horses. They came on the third day to the general of an 14 army, who was in command of 8,000 troops, and when his servants had asked and received 15 gifts they took them to their commander Corenza. He enquired of them the cause of their 16 journey and the nature of their business, and on learning this, he sent with them three Tartars 17 from his following so that they should have horses and provisions from one army to another 18 until they came to Bati, who is one of the great princes of the Tartars and the one who laid 19 waste Hungary. 20 On their way they crossed the rivers Nepere [Dnieper] and Don, and they spent five weeks and 21 more on this journey i.e. from the first Sunday in Lent to Maundy Thursday, when they 22 reached Bati, finding him on the great river Ethil2 which the Russians call the Volga, and 23 which is supposed to be the Thanais.3 24 And when the servants of Bati received the presents that they demanded, namely forty beaver 25 skins and eighty badger skins, they carried them between the two sacred fires, and the Friars 26 were obliged to do likewise, since it is the custom of the Tartars to purify envoys and presents 27 by fire. Beyond the fires there stood a chariot bearing a golden statue of the Emperor, which 28 also it is their custom to worship. But as the Friars utterly refused to do so they were only 29 compelled to bow their heads. 30 When Bati had heard the Pope's letters and examined them word by word, after five days, that 31 is, on the Tuesday after Easter, he sent the Friars with his own litters and the same Tartar 32 guides as before to the son of the great Emperor, whose name is Cuy[u]cchan4, in the native 33 land of the Tartars. 34 And so they were dismissed by Prince Bati and, binding their limbs with bandages to bear the 35 strain of continual riding, they left the land of the Comans after two weeks. This is the land 36 1 Modern Wroclaw or Breslau. 2 Itil or Ityl, the Turkish name for the Volga. 3 The tanais is, of course, the Don, as William of Rubruck realized. 4 Guyuk at this time had not yet been chosen as Greak Khan. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 6 OF 71 which was once named Pontus and in it there is a great deal of wormwood, as Ovid remarks in 37 his Epistles: "The bitter wormwood shivers in the endless plains." 38 Now as the Friars traversed Comania they had on their right the land of the Saxi, whom we 39 believe to be Goths and who are Christians: next the Alans who are Christians and then the 40 Guzari [Khazars] who are likewise Christian. In their country is situated Ornas,5 a rich city 41 which the Tartars captured by flooding it with water. After, the Circassians, and they are 42 Christians. And finally the Georgians, also Christians. 43 Before this in Russia, they had the Mordvins,6 who are pagans and have the greater part of the 44 back of their heads shorn. Then the Bylers7 who are pagan, then the Bascards [Bashkirs] who 45 are the ancient Hungarians, then the dog-headed Cynocephali, then the Parocitae, who have 46 such small and narrow mouths that they cannot chew anything solid but take liquids, and 47 inhale the steam of meat and fruit. 48 On the frontier of Comania, they crossed a river named Yaralk [Yaik or Ural] where the land of 49 the Kangites8 begins. Through this country they rode for twenty days, finding few men, but 50 many marshes and saltings and salt rivers, which we believe to be the Meotide swamps;9 51 moreover, for eight days they traversed a vast desert sandy and parched with drought. 52 After the land of the Kangites they reached Turkey [Turkestan] where they found for the first 53 time a large city Yankint and they travelled through Turkey for about ten days. Now Turkey 54 follows the law of Mahomet. After Turkey they entered a land which is called Kara Kitai that is 55 to say Black Cathay and the inhabitants are pagans and they found no city there, but they 56 found a sea on their left hand which we believe to be the Caspian.10 After this they entered the 57 land of the Naimans who were once lords of the Tartars and here also they found no villages or 58 cities. Finally they entered the land of the Tartars on the Feast of Mary Magdalene [July 22nd], 59 when they found the Emperor at a great encampment which is called Syra Orda. Here they 60 stayed four months and were present at the election of Cuiu[c]kan their Emperor. 61 And the same Brother Benedict the Pole related to us by word of mouth how they had both 62 seen about 5,000 princes and great men who were all clad in cloth of gold on the first day when 63 they assembled for the election of the king. But neither on that day, nor on the next when they 64 appeared in white samite, did they come to an agreement. But on the third day, when they 65 wore red samite, they reached agreement and made the election. Moreover, the same Brother 66 affirms that there were about 3,000 ambassador envoys from different parts of the world 67 present, bringing letters, answers, and every kind of tribute and gifts to the court. And among 68 them were the aforesaid Friars who wore brocade over their habit as needs must, for no envoy 69 is allowed to see the face of the elect and crowned king, unless he is correctly dressed. 70 Accordingly they were admitted to the Syra Orda which is the Emperor's abode, and saw him 71 wearing his crown and shining in splendid robes. He was sitting in the midst of the tent on a 72 5 A large city near the mouth of the Don River. Carpini described it as densely populated with Christians but whose government was managed by the Saracens. 6 The Mordvins are a Finno-Ugrian people who still exist on the Volga. 7 The Bylers are the Volga Bulgarians represented by the modern Chuvash. As William of Rubruck notes they were not pagans, but strongly Mohammedan. 8 The Kangites are the Kangli Turks, occupying what is now the Kaizak country. 9 Probably the salt lakes of the Turgai and the Kyzyl Kum desert. 10 Probably Lake Balkash. The “we” of this passage and the preceding one are presumably the scribes who took down this verbal report. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 7 OF 71 dais richly ornamented with gold and silver and with a canopy over it. There were four separate 73 sets of steps leading up to this dais. Three of them were in front, one in the middle by which 74 the Emperor alone went up and down, and two at the sides for the grandees and lesser men, 75 while by the fourth flight, which was at the back, his mother and his wife and family used to 76 ascend. Likewise, the Syra Orda had three entrances, like doors, and the one in the middle, 77 which is the largest and far exceeds the others, always stands open without any guard, for the 78 king alone goes in and out by it, and if anyone else were to enter by it he would be slain 79 without mercy. But the two side doors were closed with bars, and have most severe guards 80 keeping watch with arms, and through these, men enter with awe for fear of the appointed 81 penalty. 82 On the third day the mission of the Lord Pope was heard after discussion and deliberation 83 through the official and interpreters, and afterwards the Friars were sent to the Emperor's 84 mother whom they found in another place, also sitting in a great and very fair tent. And she 85 treated them with great courtesy and friendliness and sent them back to her son. 86 While they were staying there they often met Georgians who lived among the Tartars and were 87 highly respected by them as brave and warlike men. These people are called Georgians because 88 they invoke St. George in their wars and have him as patron and honour him beyond all other 89 saints. They use the Greek version of Holy Scripture and have crosses on their camps and their 90 carts. They follow the Greek rites in divine worship among the Tartars. 91 And so when the business on which they had come had been completed the Friars were sent 92 back by the Emperor to carry letters to the Lord Pope signed under his own seal. They set out 93 westwards with the envoys of the Soldan of Babylon, and when they had travelled together for 94 fifteen days, the envoys turned southwards and left them. But the Friars travelled on to the 95 West, and after crossing the Rhine at Cologne they returned to the Lord Pope at Lyons and 96 presented to him the letters of the Emperor of the Tartars, the purport of which according to 97 the Latin translation that was made is as follows: 98 99 The Strength of God, the Emperor of all men, to the Great Pope, Authentic and True Letters 100 Having taken counsel for making peace with us, You Pope and all Christians have sent an 101 envoy to us, as we have heard from him and as your letters declare. Wherefore, if you wish to 102 have peace with us, You Pope and all kings and potentates, in no way delay to come to me to 103 make terms of peace and then you shall hear alike our answer and our will. The contents of 104 your letters stated that we ought to be baptized and become Christians. To this we answer 105 briefly that we do not understand in what way we ought to do this. To the rest of the contents 106 of your letters, viz: that you wonder at so great a slaughter of men, especially of Christians and 107 in particular Poles, Moravians and Hungarians, we reply likewise that this also we do not 108 understand. However, lest we may seem to pass it over in silence altogether, we give you this 109 for our answer. 110 Because they did not obey the word of God and the command of Chingis Chan and the Chan, 111 but took council to slay our envoys, therefore God ordered us to destroy them and gave them 112 up into our hands. For otherwise if God had not done this, what could man do to man? But 113 you men of the West believe that you alone are Christians and despise others. But how can you 114 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 8 OF 71 know to whom God deigns to confer His grace? But we worshipping God have destroyed the 115 whole earth from the East to the West in the power of God. And if this were not the power of 116 God, what could men have done? Therefore if you accept peace and are willing to surrender 117 your fortresses to us, You Pope and Christian princes, in no way delay coming to me to 118 conclude peace and then we shall know that you wish to have peace with us. But if you should 119 not believe our letters and the command of God nor hearken to our counsel then we shall know 120 for certain that you wish to have war* After that we do not know what will happen, God alone 121 knows. 122 Chingis Chan, first Emperor, second Ochoday Chan, third Cuiuch Chan. 123 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 9 OF 71 Guyuk's Letter to Pope Innocent IV (1246)1 1 WE, by the power of the eternal heaven. 2 Khan of the great Ulus2 3 Our command: 4 This is a version sent to the great Pope, that he may know and understand in the [Muslim] 5 tongue, what has been written. The petition of the assembly held in the lands of the Emperor 6 [for our support], has been heard from your emissaries. 7 If he reaches [you] with his own report, Thou, who art the great Pope, together with all the 8 Princes, come in person to serve us. At that time I shall make known all the commands of the 9 Yasa. 10 You have also said that supplication and prayer have been offered by you, that I might find a 11 good entry into baptism. This prayer of thine I have not understood. Other words which thou 12 hast sent me: "I am surprised that thou hast seized all the lands of the Magyar and the 13 Christians. Tell us what their fault is. These words of thine I have also not understood. The 14 eternal God has slain and annihilated these lands and peoples, because they have neither 15 adhered to Chingis Khan, nor to the Khagan,3 both of whom have been sent to make known 16 God's command, nor to the command of God. Like thy words, they also were impudent, they 17 were proud and they slewour messenger-emissaries. How could anybody seize or kill by his 18 own power contrary to the command of God? 19 Though thou likewise sayest that I should become a trembling Nestorian Christian, worship 20 God and be an ascetic, how knowest thou whom God absolves, in truth to whom He shows 21 mercy? How dost thou know that such words as thou speakest are with God's sanction? From 22 the rising of the sun to its setting, all the lands have been made subject to me. Who could do 23 this contrary to the command of God? 24 Now you should say with a sincere heart: "I will submit and serve you." Thou thyself, at the 25 head of all the Princes, come at once to serve and wait upon us ! At that time I shall recognize 26 your submission. 27 If you do not observe God's command, and if you ignore my command, I shall know you as my 28 enemy. Likewise I shall make you understand. If you do otherwise, God knows what I know. 29 At the end of Jumada the second in the year 644.4 30 The Seal 31 We, by the power of the eternal Tengri, universal Khan of the great Mongol Ulus our command. 32 If this reaches peoples who have made their submission, let them respect and stand in awe of 33 it. 34 1 Translated from the Persian. 2 Ulus is a large or small social group, here consisting of all the peoples under the supreme ruler as a community. 3 Khagan is the supreme ruler. 4 The date at the end of the document corresponds to November A.D. 1246. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 10 OF 71 Ibn al-Athir: On The Tatars, 1220-1221CE 1 For some years I continued averse from mentioning this event, deeming it so horrible that I 2 shrank from recording it and ever withdrawing one foot as I advanced the other. To whom, 3 indeed, can it be easy to write the announcement of the death-blow of Islam and the Muslims, 4 or who is he on whom the remembrance thereof can weigh lightly? O would that my mother 5 had not born me or that I had died and become a forgotten thing ere this befell! Yet, withal a 6 number of my friends urged me to set it down in writing, and I hesitated long, but at last came 7 to the conclusion that to omit this matter could serve no useful purpose. 8 I say, therefore, that this thing involves the description of the greatest catastrophe and the 9 most dire calamity (of the like of which days and nights are innocent) which befell all men 10 generally, and the Muslims in particular; so that, should one say that the world, since God 11 Almighty created Adam until now, has not been afflicted with the like thereof, he would but 12 speak the truth. For indeed history does not contain anything which approaches or comes near 13 unto it. For of the most grievous calamities recorded was what Nebuchadnezzar inflicted on the 14 children of Israel by his slaughter of them and his destruction of Jerusalem; and what was 15 Jerusalem in comparison to the countries which these accursed miscreants destroyed, each 16 city of which was double the size of Jerusalem? Or what were the children of Israel compared 17 to those whom these slew? For verily those whom they massacred in a single city exceeded all 18 the children of Israel. Nay, it is unlikely that mankind will see the like of this calamity, until 19 the world comes to an end and perishes, except the final outbreak of Gog and Magog. 20 For even Antichrist will spare such as follow him, though he destroy those who oppose him, 21 but these Tatars spared none, slaying women and men and children, ripping open pregnant 22 women and killing unborn babes. Verily to God do we belong, and unto Him do we return, and 23 there is no strength and no power save in God, the High, the Almighty, in face of this 24 catastrophe, whereof the sparks flew far and wide, and the hurt was universal; and which 25 passed over the lands like clouds driven by the wind. For these were a people who emerged 26 from the confines of China, and attacked the cities of Turkestan, like Kashghar and 27 Balasaghun, and thence advanced on the cities of Transoxiana, such as Samarqand, Bukhara 28 and the like, taking possession of them, and treating their inhabitants in such wise as we shall 29 mention; and of them one division then passed on into Khurasan, until they had made an end 30 of taking possession, and destroying, and slaying, and plundering, and thence passing on to 31 Ray, Hamadan and the Highlands, and the cities contained therein, even to the limits of Iraq, 32 whence they marched on the towns of Adharbayjan and Arraniyya, destroying them and 33 slaying most of their inhabitants, of whom none escaped save a small remnant; and all this in 34 less than a year; this is a thing whereof the like has not been heard. And when they had 35 finished with Adharbayjan and Arraniyya, they passed on to Darband-i-Shirwan, and occupied 36 its cities, none of which escaped save the fortress wherein was their King; wherefore they 37 passed by it to the countries of the Lan and the Lakiz and the various nationalities which dwell 38 in that region, and plundered, slew, and destroyed them to the full. And thence they made their 39 way to the lands of Qipchaq, who are the most numerous of the Turks, and slew all such as 40 withstood them, while the survivors fled to the fords and mountain-tops, and abandoned their 41 country, which these Tatars overran. All this they did in the briefest space of time, remaining 42 only for so long as their march required and no more. 43 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 11 OF 71 Another division, distinct from that mentioned above, marched on Ghazna and its 44 dependencies, and those parts of India, Sistan and Kirman which border thereon, and wrought 45 therein deeds like unto the other, nay, yet more grievous. Now this is a thing the like of which 46 ear has not heard; for Alexander, concerning whom historians agree that he conquered the 47 world, did not do so with such swiftness, but only in the space of about ten years; neither did 48 he slay, but was satisfied that men should be subject to him. But these Tatars conquered most 49 of the habitable globe, and the best, the most flourishing and most populous part thereof, and 50 that whereof the inhabitants were the most advanced in character and conduct, in about a 51 year; nor did any country escape their devastations which did not fearfully expect them and 52 dread their arrival. 53 Moreover they need no commissariat, nor the conveyance of supplies, for they have with them 54 sheep, cows, horses, and the like quadrupeds, the flesh of which they eat, naught else. As for 55 their beasts which they ride, these dig into the earth with their hoofs and eat the roots of 56 plants, knowing naught of barley. And so, when they alight anywhere, they have need of 57 nothing from without. As for their religion, they worship the sun when it rises, and regard 58 nothing as unlawful, for they eat all beasts, even dogs, pigs, and the like; nor do they recognise 59 the marriage-tie, for several men are in marital relations with one woman, and if a child is 60 born, it knows not who is its father. 61 Therefore Islam and the Muslims have been afflicted during this period with calamities 62 wherewith no people hath been visited. These Tatars (may God confound them!) came from the 63 East, and wrought deeds which horrify all who hear of them, and which you shall, please God, 64 see set forth in full detail in their proper connection. And of these was the invasion of Syria by 65 the Franks (may God curse them!) out of the West, and their attack on Egypt, and occupation 66 of the port of Damietta therein, so that Egypt and Syria were like to be conquered by them, but 67 for the grace of God and the help which He vouchsafed us against them, as we have mentioned 68 under the year 614 (A.D. 1217-18). Of these, moreover, was that the sword was drawn between 69 those who escaped from these two foes, and strife was rampant, as we have also mentioned: 70 and verily unto God do we belong and unto Him do we return! We ask God to vouchsafe victory 71 to Islam and the Muslims, for there is none other to aid, help, or defend the True Faith. But if 72 God intends evil to any people, naught can avert it, nor have they any ruler save Him. As for 73 these Tatars, their achievements were only rendered possible by the absence of any effective 74 obstacle; and the cause of this absence was that Muhammad Khwarazmshah had overrun the 75 lands, slaying and destroying their Kings, so that he remained alone ruling over all these 76 countries; wherefore, when he was defeated by the Tatars, none was left in the lands to check 77 those or protect these, that so God might accomplish a thing which was to be done. 78 It is now time for us to describe how they first burst forth into the lands. Stories have been 79 related to me, which the hearer can scarcely credit, as to the terror of the Tatars, which God 80 Almighty cast into men's hearts; so that it is said that a single one of them would enter a 81 village or a quarter wherein were many people, and would continue to slay them one after 82 another, none daring to stretch forth his hand against this horseman. And I have heard that 83 one of them took a man captive, but had not with him any weapon wherewith to kill him; and 84 he said to his prisoner, "Lay your head on the ground and do not move," and he did so, and the 85 Tatar went and fetched his sword and slew him therewith. Another man related to me as 86 follows: "I was going," said he, "with seventeen others along a road, and there met us a Tatar 87 horseman, and bade us bind one another's arms. My companions began to do as he bade 88 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 12 OF 71 them, but I said to them, "He is but one man; wherefore, then, should we not kill him and flee?' 89 They replied, 'We are afraid.' I said, 'This man intends to kill you immediately; let us therefore 90 rather kill him, that perhaps God may deliver us.' But I swear by God that not one of them 91 dared to do this, so I took a knife and slew him, and we fled and escaped.' And such 92 occurrences were many. 93 Source From: Edward G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, (Cambridge: Cambridge 94 University Press, 1902), Vol. II, pp. 427-431. 95 Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Cal. State Fullerton. The text has been modernized by Prof. 96 Arkenberg. 97 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 13 OF 71 The Fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258 1 1. When Ibn Jubayr visited Baghdad in 1184 he felt the city's decline: "This ancient city, 2 though it still serves as the Abbasid capital, has lost much of its distinctive character and 3 retains only its famous name. Compared to what it once was--before it fell victim to recurrent 4 misfortunes and repeated calamities--the city resembles a vanished encampment, or a passing 5 phantom." After recounting his visit to the city, Ibn Jubayr concluded that it "is greater than 6 can be described," but he couldn't resist lamenting, "but what is she to what she was? Today 7 we may apply to her the saying of the lover: You are not you, and the houses are not those I 8 knew." 9 2. Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidaya wa Al-Nihaya, 14th century. They [the Mongols] came down upon the 10 city and killed all they could, men, women and children, the old, the middle-aged, and the 11 young. Many of the people went into wells, latrines, and sewers and hid there for many days 12 without emerging. Most of the people gathered in the caravanserais [inns] and locked 13 themselves in. The Tatars [Mongols] opened the gates by either breaking or burning them. 14 When they entered, the people in them fled upstairs and the Tatars killed them on the roofs 15 until blood poured from the gutters into the street; "We belong to God and to God we return" 16 [Qur'an, ii, 156]. The same happened in the mosques and cathedral mosques and dervish 17 convents. No one escaped them except for the Jewish and Christian dhimmis [protected 18 minorities], those who found shelter with them or in the house of the Vizier Ibn Al-'Alqami the 19 Shi'ite, and a group of merchants who had obtained safe-conduct from them, having paid great 20 sums of money to preserve themselves and their property. And Baghdad, which had been the 21 most civilised of all cities, became a ruin with only a few inhabitants, and they were in fear and 22 hunger and wretchedness and insignificance." 23 3. The philosopher Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi (d.1274), who was present with Hulaghu (the Mongol 24 king) at the time, recounts the encounter between the two rulers: "He [Hulaghu] went to 25 examine the Caliph's residence and walked about it in every direction. The Caliph was fetched 26 and ordered presents to be offered. Whatever he brought out the King at once distributed 27 amongst his suite and emirs, as well as among military leaders and all those present. He then 28 set a golden tray before the Caliph and said: 'Eat!' 'It is not edible,' said the Caliph. 'Then why 29 didst thou keep it,' asked the King, 'and not give it to thy soldiers? And why didst thou not 30 make these iron doors into arrow-heads and come to the banks of the river so that I might not 31 have been able to cross it?' 'Such,' replied the Caliph, 'was God's will.' 'What will befall thee,' 32 said the King, 'is also God's will.'" 33 4. A poem by Taquaddin Ibn Abil-Yusr describes the destruction of Baghdad in 1258. It is 34 quoted by Al-Dhahabi' (d.1348) in his Tarikh M-Islam (The History of Islam). 35 How many treasures have become scattered abroad through plundering, and passed into the 36 possession of infidels; 37 How many punishments have been inflicted by their swords upon men's necks, how many 38 burdens [of sin] there lain down.... 39 After the capture of all the house of Al-Abbas, may no brightening illumine the face of the 40 dawn; 41 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 14 OF 71 Nothing has ever given me pleasure since their departure save the Sayings of the Prophet that I 42 pass on and Traditions of the Fathers; 43 There remains for neither the Faith nor the world, now that they are gone, any market of glory, 44 for they have passed away and perished. 45 Truly the Day of Judgment has been held in Baghdad, and her term, when to prosperity 46 succeeds adversity. 47 The family of the Prophet and the household of learning have been taken captive, and whom, 48 think you, after their loss, will cities contain?" 49 Sources: Excerpts 1, 3 and 4 from "Its Famous Names" by Amina Elbendary, Al-Ahram Weekly 50 Online, Cairo (April 2003), weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/634/bo2.htm. 51 Excerpt 2 from "Remembrance of Things Past: On the City of Peace, Baghdad," in Al-Ahram 52 Weekly Online, Cairo (April 2003), weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/634/bsc3.htm. 53 54 Essential Questions 55 The Fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258 56 1. The first excerpt quotes a visitor to Baghdad before it fell to the Mongols. How does Ibn 57 Jubyar describe the city? What evidence does Ibn Jubyar provide that the city is no longer at 58 its height? What evidence does he provide that it is nonetheless a great city? 59 2. Is the author of the second account, Ibn Kathir, an eyewitness to the fall of Baghdad or a 60 chronicler of past events? Explain. 61 3. In what ways does Ibn Kathir contrast the "civilized city" of Baghdad with the invaders? Give 62 specifics. 63 4. Is the third author, Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi, an eyewitness or historian of a past event? Explain. 64 How does he describe the confrontation between Hulaghu and the Caliph? Who has power at 65 the end of the encounter, and how do we know? 66 5. The final excerpt is from a poem. In what way does the poet, Taquaddin Ibn Abil-Yusr, 67 lament the demise of Baghdad? What is the role of the Islamic faith in the poem? 68 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 15 OF 71 Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidaya wa Al-Nihaya, 14th century: The Fall of Baghdad (1258) 1 "THEN came the year 656 [1258], in which the Tatars captured Baghdad and killed most of its 2 people, including the caliph, and the dominion [dawla] of the sons of 'Abbas ended there. 3 When this year began, the Tatar armies had already attacked Baghdad, under the two amirs 4 who commanded the troops of the sultan of the Tatars, Hulegu Khan. To them came the 5 auxiliaries of the lord of Mosul, to help them against the Baghdadis, with provisions and gifts 6 and offerings from him. He did all this because he feared for himself from the Tatars and 7 wished to ingratiate himself with them, may God condemn them. Baghdad was defended, and 8 mangonels and onagers were set up, with other instruments of defence, which however, cannot 9 avert any part of God's decree. As the Prophet said, "Caution does not avail against fate" and as 10 God said, "When God's term comes it cannot be deferred" [Qur'an, Ixxi, 4] and also: "God does 11 not change what is in a people until they change what is in themselves, when God wishes evil 12 for a people, they cannot avert it, and they have no other protector" [Qur'an, xiii, II]. 13 The Tatars surrounded the seat of the caliphate and rained arrows on it from every side until a 14 slave-girl was hit while she was playing before the caliph and amusing him. She was one of his 15 concubines, a mulatta called 'Urfa, and an arrow came through one of the windows and killed 16 her while she was dancing before the caliph. The caliph was alarmed and very frightened. The 17 arrow which had hit her was brought to him, and on it was written. "When God wishes to 18 accomplish His decree, he deprives men of reason of their reason." After this the caliph ordered 19 increased precautions, and the defences of the seat of the caliphate were multiplied. 20 The arrival of Hulegu Khan at Baghdad with all his troops, numbering nearly 200,000 fighting 21 men, occurred on 12 Muharram of this year [January 19, 1258] ... he came to Baghdad with 22 his numerous infidel, profligate, tyrannical, brutal armies of men, who believed neither in God 23 nor in the Last Day, and invested Baghdad on the western and eastern sides. The armies of 24 Baghdad were very few and utterly wretched, not reaching 10,000 horsemen. They and the rest 25 of the army had all been deprived of their fiefs [iqta'] so that many of them were begging in the 26 markets and by the gates of the mosques. Poets were reciting elegies on them and mourning for 27 Islam and its people. All this was due to the opinions of the vizier Ibn Al-'Alqami the Shi'ite, 28 because in the previous year, when heavy fighting took place between the Sunnis and the 29 Shi'ites, Karkh and the Shi'ite quarter were looted, and even the houses of the vizier's kinsmen 30 were looted. He was filled with spite because of this, and this was what spurred him to bring 31 down on Islam and its people the most appalling calamity that has been recorded from the 32 building of Baghdad until this time. That is why he was the first to go out to the Tatars. He 33 went with his family and his companions and his servants and his suite and met Sultan 34 Hulegu Khan, may God curse him, and then returned and advised the caliph to go out to him 35 and be received by him in audience and to make peace on the basis of half the land tax of Iraq 36 for them and half for the caliph. The caliph had to go with 700 riders, including the qadis, the 37 jurists, the Sufis, the chief amirs, and the notables. When they came near the camp of Sultan 38 Hulegu Khan, all but 17 of them were removed from the sight of the caliph; they were taken off 39 their horses and robbed and killed to the very last man. The caliph and the others were saved. 40 The caliph was then brought before Hulegu, who asked him many things. It is said that the 41 caliph's speech was confused because of his terror at the disdain and arrogance which he 42 experienced. Then he returned to Baghdad in the company of Khoja Nasireddin Al-Tusi, the 43 Vizier Ibn Al-'Alqami, and others, the caliph being under guard and sequestration, and they 44 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 16 OF 71 brought great quantities of gold and jewels and gold and silver objects and precious stones and 45 other valuables from the seat of the caliphate. But this clique of Shi'ites and other hypocrites 46 advised Hulegu not to make peace with the caliph. The vizier said, "If peace is made on equal 47 shares, it will not last more than a year or two, and then things will be as they were before." 48 And they made the killing of the caliph seem good to him so that when the caliph returned to 49 Sultan Hulegu he gave orders to kill him... 50 They [the Tatars] came down upon the city and killed all they could, men, women and children, 51 the old, the middle-aged, and the young. Many of the people went into wells, latrines, and 52 sewers and hid there for many days without emerging. Most of the people gathered in the 53 caravanserais and locked themselves in. The Tatars opened the gates by either breaking or 54 burning them. When they entered, the people in them fled upstairs and the Tatars killed them 55 on the roofs until blood poured from the gutters into the street; "We belong to God and to God 56 we return" [Qur'an, ii, 156]. The same happened in the mosques and cathedral mosques and 57 dervish convents. No one escaped them except for the Jewish and Christian dhimmis, those 58 who found shelter with them or in the house of the Vizier Ibn Al-'Alqami the Shi'ite, and a 59 group of merchants who had obtained safe-conduct from them, having paid great sums of 60 money to preserve themselves and their property. And Baghdad, which had been the most 61 civilised of all cities, became a ruin with only a few inhabitants, and they were in fear and 62 hunger and wretchedness and insignificance." 63 Ibn Kathir, Al-Bidaya wa Al-Nihaya, 14th century. 64 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 17 OF 71 Who Was Niccolò Machiavelli? 1 Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence on 3 May 1469, the son of Bernardo and Bartolomea 2 de’ Nerli, from the neighbourhood of Santa Trínita. The Machiavelli had been a prominent 3 Florentine family. Niccolò’s father, however, was neither wealthy nor powerful. His law degree, 4 and his properties on the outskirts of Florence, were barely sufficient to guarantee his family a 5 modest lifestyle. In a letter to Francesco Vettori of 18 March 1513, Niccolò gives us a vivid 6 summary of his youth: ‘I was born in poverty, and at an early age learned how to script rather 7 than to thrive.’1 8 9 Poverty did not prevent Bernardo from providing Niccolò with a good education that enabled 10 him to learn grammar, rhetoric, and Latin. He never learned Greek, even if Florence was at the 11 time one of the centres of Greek scholarship in Europe. He also never learned banking and 12 trade, the two arts in which Florentines excelled. Unlike the most prominent humanists of his 13 time, Niccolò was unable to read the great works of Greek philosophy and historiography in the 14 original. The Latin world was, on the contrary, perfectly accessible to him. One of the few facts 15 we know of Machiavelli’s youth is that he copied out Lucretius’ De rerum natura (On the 16 Nature of Things), the great poem describing the origins of nature––the sea, plants, and 17 animals––and the condition of man. 18 19 From Lucretius, Machiavelli derived his disconsolate and realistic view of man’s condition. Far 20 from being the master of the universe, man is in fact the victim of nature and of fortune. Man 21 is born naked and bawling. Alone among the animals, he is capable of astonishing cruelty 22 against his fellow human beings. Yet no other creature has such an enormous desire to live 23 and such a thirst for––and need of––the eternal and the infinite. 24 25 With this conception of human nature and life, Niccolò Machiavelli appeared on the scene of 26 Florentine politics in 1497. At the time, the major political and moral figure was the Dominican 27 friar Girolamo Savonarola. Through his powerful oratory and his prophetic style, Savonarola 28 had for years been denouncing the corruption of the papacy and the moral decline of Florence. 29 As a remedy against moral corruption that was threatening to produce the irreparable fall of 30 the city in the hands of a tyrannical regime, Savonarola urged the people of Florence to set up 31 a republican government based upon a Consiglio Maggiore that was, by sixteenth-century 32 standards, a very large legislative body. The Republic of Florence was actually instituted in 33 December 1494, after the expulsion of the Medici, the family that, with its money and policy of 34 patronage, had been the de facto ruler of Florence since the fifteenth century. 35 36 1 Niccolò Machiavelli, Machiavelli and His Friends: Their Personal Correspondence, ed. and trans. by James B. Atkinson and David Sices (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996) , 222. All citations from Machiavelli’s private letters are taken from this translation unless otherwise indicated. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 18 OF 71 On 15 June 1498, a few weeks after Savonarola had been executed on a charge of heresy, 37 Machiavelli was appointed by the new republican regime Segretario (Secretary) of the Second 38 Chancery of the Republic and Secretary of the Ten of Liberty and Peace, a committee in charge 39 of governing military matters and foreign affairs. Machiavelli’s main task was to give the 40 governors of Florence the information they needed to enable them to make appropriate and 41 timely decisions. Whereas the political leaders of the Republic held their office for just a few 42 months, Machiavelli’s position was in principle a permanent job, with the obvious consequence 43 that a capable and dedicated expert, such as he was, played an important role in the political 44 life of the Republic. 45 46 In his position Machiavelli could count on the help of a number of subordinate assistants, such 47 as Agostino Vespucci, Andrea di Romolo, and Biagio Buonaccorsi, who was to become a loyal 48 friend. Unlike his assistants, however, Machiavelli was often called to accompany Florentine 49 ambassadors on delicate diplomatic missions. Even though the missions themselves were 50 neither easy nor rewarding, he loved the opportunity they offered for travelling abroad, gaining 51 direct experience of the mores of different peoples, and of studying their political institutions. 52 53 Between 1499 and 1512 Machiavelli had the opportunity to meet the most important political 54 leaders of his time: the King of France, Louis XII; the Emperor Maximilian I; Pope Julius II; and 55 Duke Valentino (Cesare Borgia). He visited several Italian courts, as well as France and the 56 Tyrol. From his missions he was able to gain new insights into real political life and to know 57 directly the minds, the ambitions, the vices, and the (few) virtues of the political leaders who 58 were shaping the destiny of Italy and Europe. 59 60 In his diplomatic negotiations, Machiavelli very soon became aware of the political and military 61 weakness of Italy vis-à-vis European nation-states like Spain and France. Divided into five 62 major states (the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Venice, the Papal State, the Republic of 63 Florence, and the Kingdom of Naples) and a number of independent or semi-independent cities 64 such as Genoa, Lucca, Bologna, Ferrara, and Siena, Italy lacked both political power and 65 military might sufficient to protect the integrity of its territory. All Italian states, including the 66 Republic of Florence, moreover, were relying for their safety on mercenary troops or on the 67 protection of France or Spain. 68 69 To rectify this weakness, Machiavelli tried to persuade the political leaders of the Florentine 70 Republic, and above all its highest authority, the Gonfaloniere (Standard-bearer) Pier Soderini, 71 to institute an army, composed first of subjects of the dominion, and later also of Florentine 72 citizens. One of his most important political writings of the period in which he served as 73 Secretary, the Parole da dirle sopra la provisione del danaio, facto un poco di proemio et di 74 scusa (Words to be Spoken on the Law for Appropriating Money, After Giving a Little 75 Introduction and Excuse), is a powerful oration designed to convince the Florentine leadership 76 that without a good army the Republic’s liberty was utterly insecure.(**2 For an English 77 translation, see Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others, ed. and trans. Allan Gilbert 78 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 19 OF 71 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989), iii. 1439–43.) Machiavelli succeeded in his project: 79 on 15 February 1506 four hundred soldiers of the newly instituted militia paraded in good 80 order through the streets of Florence. It was his greatest political success. 81 82 Neither the new militia nor mercenary troops, and even less the king of France, Florence’s 83 alleged protector, were capable of defending the Republic from the assault of Spanish and 84 papal troops in late August 1512. The assault had been carefully prepared by Pope Julius II 85 and the Medici in exile. On August the Spanish troops conquered and sacked Prato, a small 86 town a few miles north of Florence. It was the end of the republican government led by Pier 87 Soderini, and a new government totally controlled by the Medici was promptly set up in its 88 place. 89 The fall of the Republic was the end of Machiavelli’s career as Secretary. On 7 November 1513 90 he received a letter that relieved him of all his positions. A few days later another letter 91 enjoined him to remain within the dominions of Florence for a year and to pay a surety of one 92 thousand florins. Yet another letter on 17 November forbade him to enter the Palazzo Vecchio, 93 the palace of the government, for a year. Between the end of November and 10 December 94 officers of the new regime subjected him to close investigation to uncover any evidence of 95 malfeasance. They found no such evidence. Even if vast amounts of money had flowed through 96 his hands, Niccolò had served the Republic with complete and impeccable honesty. 97 98 Nonetheless, his tribulations were not over. A very poorly planned conspiracy against the 99 Medici was unveiled. Machiavelli was suspected of involvement in it. He was imprisoned and 100 tortured to obtain a confession that would have meant capital punishment. He was able to 101 resist torture, however, and was released from prison on 11 or 12 March 1514, as a result of 102 an amnesty that the Medicean government proclaimed to celebrate the elevation of Cardinal 103 Giovanni de’ Medici to the seat of Saint Peter, under the name of Leo X. 104 105 Why Machiavelli Wrote The Prince 106 When Machiavelli sat down in his farmhouse in Sant’Andrea in Percussina, a few miles south 107 of Florence, to write The Prince, he was for everyone, and for himself, the ‘former Secretary’ of 108 the bygone Republic, as he sadly signed a letter of April 1513. However, he did not compose his 109 little treatise in order to please the Medici in the hope of obtaining some kind of political 110 employment within the new regime they had established in Florence in 1512, or in Rome under 111 the protection of the Medici Pope Leo X. 112 113 The truth is that Machiavelli did try to obtain a position from the Medici, but he did not write 114 The Prince in order to win their favour.2 He was hoping to be offered a new post in recognition 115 2 The reader of The Prince should bear in mind that the original title Machiavelli gave to his work was in Latin––De Principatibus––and its literal translation in English would read Of Principalities. Machiavelli mentions this title in a letter addressed to Francesco Vettori, 10 Dec. 1513. See Machiavelli and His Friends, 164. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 20 OF 71 of his unquestionable competence in the ‘art of the state’ and as a reward for his abilities and 116 impeccable honesty, not as a gift in reward for flattery. As he wrote in the famous letter to 117 Francesco Vettori of 10 December 1513: 118 Besides, there is my desire that these Medici princes should begin to engage my 119 services, even if they should start out by having me roll along a stone. For then, if I 120 could not win them over, I should have only myself to blame. And through this study of 121 mine [The Prince] were it to be read, it would be evident that for the fifteen years while I 122 have been studying the art of the state [arte dello stato], I have neither slept nor fooled 123 around, and anybody ought to be happy to utilize someone who has had so much 124 experience at the expense of others. There should be no doubt about my word; for, since 125 I have always kept it, I should not start learning how to break it now. Whoever has been 126 honest and faithful for forty-three years, as I have, is unable to change his nature; my 127 poverty is a witness to my loyalty and honesty.3 128 129 Had Machiavelli intended to write a work primarily to obtain a job, he would have written a 130 completely different text, full of praise of the Medici and their glorious history, replete with the 131 kind of advice that men like Lorenzo or Leo X liked to hear. Machiavelli knew better than 132 anyone else that the most important rule of successful flattery is to say what pleases the 133 person from whom one expects to obtain favours. In The Prince he does exactly the opposite. 134 Instead of repeating the well-established principles that had allowed the Medici to gain control 135 over the city, Machiavelli gave them advice that they were not in the least able to appreciate, 136 and which must surely have irritated them if they had decided to read Machiavelli’s work. The 137 Prince is a critique of the prevailing Medicean understanding of the art of the state, a policy 138 founded upon a system of favours and patronage designed to ensure substantial control over 139 the republic’s institutions. 140 141 In The Prince, Machiavelli addresses all the key issues concerning the security of a regime like 142 that of the Medici, beginning with the hotly debated theme of the difficulty posed by the large 143 number of supporters of the bygone Republic. With typical briskness, he assures his readers 144 that, unlike what other advisers believed, the truth of the matter is that ‘men are much more 145 taken by present concerns than by those of the past, and when they discover benefit in present 146 things, they enjoy it and seek no more. In fact, they will seize every measure to defend the new 147 prince so long as he is not lacking in his duties’ (Ch. XXIV).4 148 149 Machiavelli also rejects the idea that the new regime has to worry about those who were 150 content with the old Republic and sustained it, claiming instead that the true danger comes 151 from the aristocrats who were dissatisfied with it. It will be very difficult for the new prince to 152 turn them into loyal friends, even if they have helped him to attain power (Ch. XX). A new 153 prince must always regard the aristocrats as a serious threat to the state, because they have 154 3 Ibid 4 All quotations from The Prince are taken from the present translation and will be indicated by chapter number in the text proper. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 21 OF 71 the means and the audacity to attack him openly if they are dissatisfied. He must therefore 155 distinguish among the nobles between those who are prepared to associate their fate with his 156 and those who are not: 157 Those who do not commit themselves can be evaluated in two ways. If they act in this 158 manner out of pusillanimity and a natural lack of courage, you should make use of 159 them, especially those who are wise advisers, since in prosperous times they will gain 160 you honour and in adverse times you need not fear them. But when, cunningly and 161 influenced by ambition, they refrain from committing themselves to you, this is a sign 162 that they think more of themselves than of you. The prince should be on his guard 163 against them and fear them as if they were declared enemies, because they will always 164 help to bring about his downfall in adverse times. (Ch. IX) 165 166 The Medici, who always presented their regime as a ‘civil principality’ based upon ‘the favour of 167 the common people or with that of the nobility’, would hardly have failed to read these lines as 168 strong advice not to seek to ground their power on the nobles’ support, as their counsellors 169 were urging them to do (Ch. IX).6 Against the trite proverb that ‘he who builds upon the people 170 builds upon mud’ (‘chi fonda sul populo fonda sul fango’), endorsed by influential Florentine 171 experts on matters of state, Machiavelli remarks that to secure a civil principality a prince 172 ‘must have the friendship of the common people’ (Ch. IX). As he explains: 173 A prince can never make himself secure when the people are his enemy, because there 174 are so many of them; he can make himself secure against the nobles, because they are 175 so few. The worst that a prince can expect from a hostile people is to be abandoned by 176 them, but with a hostile nobility, not only does he have to fear being abandoned but 177 also that they will oppose him. Since the nobles are more perceptive and cunning, they 178 always have time to save themselves, seeking the favours of the side they believe will 179 prevail. Furthermore, a prince must always live with the same common people, but he 180 can easily do without the same nobles, having the power every day to make and 181 unmake them or to take away and restore their power as he sees fit. (Ch. IX) 182 183 Subversive though it was, such advice was less scandalous than his comments on the time-184 honoured Medicean practice of ruling behind the scenes through loyal friends suitably 185 appointed to the important posts of the republic. Civil principalities, Machiavelli warns, 186 collapse as soon as the prince needs to take absolute authority. Since such a need may well 187 arise, it is utterly unwise to believe that a principality in which the prince rules indirectly could 188 last for long. A prince who governs ‘by means of public magistrates’, Machiavelli explains, is in 189 a highly unstable position because he 190 depend[s] entirely upon the will of those citizens who are appointed as magistrates. 191 These men can very easily (especially in adverse times) seize the state either by 192 abandoning him or by opposing him. And in such times of danger, the prince has no 193 time for seizing absolute authority, since the citizens and subjects who are used to 194 receiving their orders from the magistrates are not willing to obey his orders in these 195 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 22 OF 71 crises. And in doubtful times he will always find a scarcity of men in whom he can 196 trust. (Ch. IX) 197 198 It is difficult to imagine a more eloquent way of saying that the old traditional practice of ruling 199 behind the scenes had to be abandoned, and new ways of governing be put into effect, if a solid 200 state were to be constructed. Along with the tradition of ‘civil government’, Machiavelli also 201 attacks the other foundation of the Medicean art of the state, namely the policy of patronage 202 and favours: ‘for friendships acquired by a price and not by greatness and nobility of spirit are 203 bought but are not owned, and at the proper time cannot be spent’ (Ch. XVII). Favours and 204 honours, he explains, generate at best a loyalty based on gratitude. But since men easily break 205 the bonds of gratitude when they see that it is in their interest to do so, friendships acquired 206 through private favours cannot offer a solid basis for the state. Much more effective than 207 gratitude is fear, sustained by the threat of punishment. If one really regards interest and fear 208 as the most powerful motives for men’s conduct, one must conclude that for a prince it is not 209 at all safe to rely on the gratitude of the partisans he has benefited, and that he should rather 210 look for ways of making himself constantly feared. The policy of patronage cannot tie the 211 partisans to the prince as strongly as the security of the state requires. 212 213 Once he has dismantled the basic tenets of Florentine wisdom on matters of state, Machiavelli 214 explains that the true art of securing a principality cannot be the skill of controlling public 215 institutions through one’s friends, nor does it consist of dissimulating power under the guise of 216 civility. It must first of all be the ability to create and to discipline a militia: 217 A prince, therefore, must not have any other object nor any other thought, nor must he 218 adopt anything as his art but war, its institutions, and its discipline; because that is the 219 only art befitting one who commands. This discipline is of such efficacy that not only 220 does it maintain those who were born princes, but it enables men of private station on 221 many occasions to rise to that position. On the other hand, it is evident that when 222 princes have given more thought to delicate refinements than to military concerns, they 223 have lost their state. The most important reason why you lose it is by neglecting this 224 art, while the way to acquire it is to be well versed in this art. (Ch. XIV) 225 226 By saying that the prince should apply himself to the art of war and work to institute an army 227 composed of his own subjects, Machiavelli was rejecting the Medicean view that the best way to 228 secure a state was to disarm the people: 229 Now, there has never been a time when a new prince disarmed his subjects. On the 230 contrary, when he has found them unarmed, he has always armed them, because when 231 armed those arms become yours: those whom you suspect become loyal, and those who 232 were loyal remain so, and they become your partisans rather than your subjects. Since 233 all of your subjects cannot be armed, when those you arm receive benefits, you can deal 234 more securely with the others. The difference in treatment toward themselves that they 235 recognize makes them obligated to you. The others excuse you, judging it necessary 236 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 23 OF 71 that those who are in more danger and who hold more responsibility should have a 237 greater reward. (Ch. XX) 238 239 For Machiavelli, the old way of building and preserving a regime, theorized over and practised 240 in Florence since the times of Cosimo de’ Medici (1389–1464), had to be abandoned in order to 241 embrace a new conception of the art of the state based on the principle that no state is a true 242 dominion unless it is sustained by an army composed of citizens or subjects. For Machiavelli, a 243 state based only on patronage is utterly inadequate to permit a new prince to accomplish great 244 things.5 He wanted to instruct and motivate a prince who would be capable of liberating Italy 245 from the ‘barbarians’, as we shall see, not simply of ruling Florence by conferring benefits on 246 this or that individual, giving marriage dowries to the daughters of his partisans, protecting his 247 friends from the magistrates, or other similar acts of patronage. 248 249 If his main aim was not to obtain the favour of the Medici, why then did Machiavelli compose 250 The Prince in the way he did? Machiavelli composed his treatise in order to prove to everyone, 251 and to himself as well, that although he had been dismissed as Secretary, he knew the art of 252 the state better than anybody else in his time, and better even than the most revered political 253 thinkers of antiquity, in particular Cicero and his modern followers. For this to happen, he had 254 to compose a great work on the art of the state, that is, a work capable of teaching the goals 255 and the means of political action in its greatest sense: the political action of founders and 256 redeemers who have the ability to create new political and legal orders, to unite and 257 emancipate Italy, and, for this reason, to attain perennial glory. Machiavelli’s new prince ought 258 to be a new Cyrus, a new Theseus, a new Moses––certainly not a new Cosimo de’ Medici. 259 Neither ancient nor modern political thinkers had composed a book designed to teach a 260 founder and a redeemer. Machiavelli composed The Prince to provide this missing book, hoping 261 in the process to contribute to the foundation of a new political order and to the emancipation 262 of Italy.6 263 5 See Ch. XVIII and Ch. XXVI (‘An exhortation to seize Italy and to free her from the barbarians’) for examples of such ‘great things’ the new prince might accomplish. 6 In the Discursus florentinarum rerum post mortem iunioris Laurentii Medices (A Discourse on Remodeling the Government of Florence), composed between November 1520 and February 1521, Machiavelli writes a revealing eulogy of great philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato who were unable to found a republic in reality and had therefore to do so only in writing. For an English translation, see Gilbert (ed.), Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others, i. 101–25. AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 24 OF 71 IX Of the Civil Principality De principatu civili 1 … In order better to clarify this point, let me say that the nobles should be considered chiefly 2 in two ways: either they conduct themselves in such a way that they commit themselves 3 completely to your cause, or they do not. Those who commit themselves and are not rapacious 4 should be honoured and loved. Those who do not commit themselves can be evaluated in two 5 ways. If they act in this manner out of pusillanimity and a natural lack of courage, you should 6 make use of them, especially those who are wise advisers, since in prosperous times they will 7 gain you honour, and in adverse times you need not fear them. But when, cunningly and 8 influenced by ambition, they refrain from committing themselves to you, this is a sign that they 9 think more of themselves than of you. The prince should be on guard against them and fear 10 them as if they were declared enemies, because they will always help to bring about his 11 downfall in adverse times. 12 13 Therefore, one who becomes prince with the support of the common people must keep them 14 well disposed. This is easy for him, since the only thing they ask of him is not to be oppressed. 15 But one who becomes prince with the help of the nobility against the will of the common people 16 must, before all else, seek to win the people’s support, which should be easy if he takes them 17 under his protection. Because men who are well treated by those from whom they expected 18 harm are more obliged to their benefactor, the common people quickly become better disposed 19 toward him than if he had become prince with their support. A prince can gain their favour in 20 various ways, but because these vary according 21 to the situation, no fixed rules can be given for them, and therefore I shall not discuss them. I 22 shall conclude by saying only that a prince must have the friendship of the common people. 23 Otherwise, he will have no support in times of adversity. Nabis, Prince of the Spartans, 24 withstood a siege by all of Greece and by one of Rome’s most victorious armies, and he 25 defended his native city and his own state against them. When danger suddenly approached, 26 he needed only to protect himself from a few of his subjects, but if he had had the common 27 people hostile, this would not have been sufficient. 28 29 Let no one contradict my opinion by citing that trite proverb, claiming he who builds upon the 30 people builds upon mud; for that is true when a private citizen makes them his foundation, 31 and allows himself to believe that the common people will free him if he is oppressed by 32 enemies or by the public officials. In such a case, a man might often find himself deceived, as 33 were the Gracchi in Rome or as Messer Giorgio Scali was in Florence. When the prince who 34 builds his foundations on the people is a man able to command and of spirit, is not bewildered 35 by adversities, does not fail to make other preparations, and is a leader who keeps up the 36 spirits of the populace through his courage and his institutions, he will never find himself 37 deceived by the common people, and he will discover that he has laid his foundations well. 38 39 Principalities of this type are usually endangered when they are about to change from a civil 40 government into an absolute form of government. For these princes rule either by themselves 41 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 25 OF 71 or by means of public magistrates. In the latter case, their status is weaker and more 42 dangerous, since they depend entirely upon the will of those citizens who are appointed as 43 magistrates. These men can very easily (especially in adverse times) seize the state, either by 44 abandoning him or by opposing him. And in such periods of danger the prince has no time for 45 seizing absolute authority, since the citizens and subjects* who are used to receiving their 46 orders from the magistrates are not willing to obey his orders in these crises. And in doubtful 47 times he will always find a scarcity of men in whom he can trust. Such a prince cannot rely 48 upon what he sees during periods of calm when the citizens need his rule, because then 49 everyone comes running, everyone makes promises, and each person is willing to die for him, 50 since death is remote. But in times of adversity, when the state needs its citizens, then few are 51 to be found. And this experiment is all the more dangerous since it can be tried but once. 52 Therefore, a wise prince must think of a method by which his citizens will need the state and 53 himself at all times and in every circumstance. Then they will always be loyal to him. 54 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 26 OF 71 X How the strength of all principalities should be measured [Quomodo omnium 1 principatuum vires perpendi debeant] 2 3 In examining the qualities of these principalities, another consideration arises: that is, whether 4 the prince has so much power that he can (if necessary) stand up on his own, or whether he 5 always needs the protection of others. In order to clarify this matter, let me say that I judge 6 those princes self-sufficient who, either through abundance of troops or of money, are capable 7 of gathering together a suitable army and of fighting a battle against whoever might attack 8 them. I consider men who always need the protection of others to be those who cannot meet 9 their enemy in the field, but must seek refuge behind their city walls and defend them. The 10 first case has already been treated,* and later on I shall say whatever else is necessary on the 11 subject. Nothing more can be added to the second case than to encourage such princes to 12 fortify and provision their own cities, and not to concern themselves with the surrounding 13 countryside. Anyone who has fortified his city well, and has managed his affairs well with his 14 subjects in the manner I discussed above and discuss below, will be attacked only with great 15 hesitation, for men are always enemies of undertakings in which they foresee difficulties, and it 16 cannot seem easy to attack someone whose city is well fortified and who is not hated by his 17 people. 18 19 The cities of Germany are completely independent, they control little surrounding territory, 20 they obey the emperor when they please, and they fear neither him nor any other nearby 21 power. For they are fortified in such a manner that everyone considers their capture to be a 22 tedious and difficult affair. They all have appropriate moats and walls; they have enough 23 artillery; they always store in their public warehouses enough drink, food, and fuel for a year. 24 Besides all this, in order to be able to keep the lower classes fed without loss of public funds, 25 they always keep in reserve a year’s supply of raw materials sufficient to give these people work 26 at those trades that are the nerves and lifeblood of that city and of the industries from which 27 the people earn their living. Moreover, they hold the military arts in high regard, and they have 28 many regulations for maintaining them. 29 30 Therefore, a prince who has a city organized in this fashion and who does not make himself 31 hated cannot be attacked. Even if he were to be attacked, the enemy would have to retreat in 32 shame, for the affairs of this world are so changeable that it is almost impossible for anyone to 33 sustain a siege for a year with his troops idle. And if it is objected that when the people have 34 their possessions outside the city, and see them destroyed, they will lose patience, and that the 35 long siege and self-interest will cause them to forget their love for their prince, let me reply that 36 a prudent and spirited prince will always overcome all such difficulties, inspiring his subjects 37 now with hope that the evil will not last long, now with fear of the enemy’s cruelty, now by 38 protecting himself with clever manoeuvres against those who seem too outspoken. Besides this, 39 the enemy will in all likelihood burn and lay waste to the surrounding country upon their 40 arrival, just when the spirits of the defenders are still ardent and determined on the city’s 41 defence. And thus the prince has so much the less to fear, because after a few days, when their 42 spirits have cooled down somewhat, the damage has already been inflicted and the evils 43 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 27 OF 71 suffered, and there is no longer any remedy for them. Now the people will rally around their 44 prince even more, for it would appear that he is bound to them by obligations, since their 45 homes were burned and their possessions destroyed in his defence. The nature of men is such 46 that they find themselves obligated as much for the benefits they confer as for those they 47 receive. Thus, if everything is taken into consideration, it will not be difficult for a prudent 48 prince to keep the spirits of his citizens firm during the siege before and after this destruction, 49 so long as he does not lack sufficient food and weapons for his defence. 50 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 28 OF 71 XVII Of cruelty and mercy, and whether it is better to be loved than to be feared or the 1 contrary [De crudelitate et pietate; et an sit melius amari quam timeri, vel e contra] 2 3 Turning to the other qualities mentioned above, let me say that every prince must desire to be 4 considered merciful and not cruel; nevertheless, he must take care not to use such mercy 5 badly. Cesare Borgia was considered cruel; nonetheless, this cruelty of his brought order to the 6 Romagna,* united it, and restored it to peace and loyalty. If we examine this carefully, we shall 7 see that he was more merciful than the Florentine people, who allowed the destruction of 8 Pistoia in order to avoid being considered cruel.* Therefore, a prince must not worry about the 9 infamy of being considered cruel when it is a matter of keeping his subjects united and loyal. 10 With a very few examples of cruelty, he will prove more compassionate than those who, out of 11 excessive mercy, permit disorders to continue from which arise murders and plundering, for 12 these usually injure the entire community, while the executions ordered by the prince injure 13 specific individuals. Of all the types of princes, the new prince cannot escape the reputation for 14 cruelty, since new states are full of dangers. Thus Virgil, through the mouth of Dido, declares: 15 ‘Res dura et regni novitas me talia cogunt moliri et late fines custode tueri’* [‘The harshness of 16 things and the newness of my rule make me act in such a manner, and to set guards over my 17 land on all sides’]. Nevertheless, a prince must be cautious in believing accusations and in 18 acting against individuals, nor should he be afraid of his own shadow. He should proceed in 19 such a manner, tempered by prudence and humanity, that too much trust may not render him 20 incautious, nor too much suspicion render him insufferable. 21 22 From this arises an argument: whether it is better to be loved than to be feared, or the 23 contrary. The answer is that one would like to be both one and the other. But since it is 24 difficult to be both together, it is much safer to be feared than to be loved, when one of the two 25 must be lacking. For one can generally say this about men: they are ungrateful, fickle, 26 simulators and deceivers, avoiders of danger, and greedy for gain. While you work for their 27 benefit they are completely yours, offering you their blood, their property, their lives, and their 28 sons, as I said above, when the need to do so is far away. But when it draws nearer to you, 29 they turn away. The prince who relies entirely upon their words comes to ruin, finding himself 30 stripped naked of other preparations. For friendships acquired by a price and not by greatness 31 and nobility of spirit are purchased but are not owned, and at the proper time cannot be spent. 32 Men are less hesitant about injuring someone who makes himself loved than one who makes 33 himself feared, because love is held together by a chain of obligation that, since men are a 34 wretched lot, is broken on every occasion for their own self-interest; but fear is sustained by a 35 dread of punishment that will never abandon you. 36 37 A prince must nevertheless make himself feared in such a way that he will avoid hatred, even if 38 he does not acquire love; since one can very easily be feared and yet not hated. This will always 39 be the case when he abstains from the property of his citizens and subjects, and from their 40 women. If he must spill someone’s blood, he should do this when there is proper justification 41 and manifest cause. But above all else, he should abstain from seizing the property of others; 42 for men forget the death of their father more quickly than the loss of their patrimony. Moreover, 43 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 29 OF 71 reasons for taking their property are never lacking, and he who begins to live by stealing 44 always finds a reason for taking what belongs to others; reasons for spilling blood, on the other 45 hand, are rarer and more fleeting. 46 47 But when the prince is with his armies and has a multitude of soldiers under his command, 48 then it is absolutely necessary that he should not worry about being considered cruel, for 49 without that reputation he will never keep an army united or prepared for any action. 50 Numbered among the remarkable deeds of Hannibal is this: that while he had a very large 51 army made up of all kinds of men that he commanded in foreign lands, there never arose the 52 slightest dissension, either among themselves or against their leader, both during his periods 53 of good and bad luck.* This could not have arisen from anything other than his inhuman 54 cruelty, which, along with his many other virtues, made him always venerable and terrifying in 55 the eyes of his soldiers. Without that quality, his other virtues would not have sufficed to attain 56 the same effect. Having considered this matter very superficially, historians on the one hand 57 admire these deeds of his, and on the other condemn the main cause of them. 58 59 That it is true that his other virtues would not have been sufficient can be seen from the case 60 of Scipio, a most extraordinary man, not only in his time but in all of recorded history, whose 61 armies in Spain rebelled against him. This came about from nothing other than his excessive 62 compassion, which gave his soldiers more licence than is suitable to military discipline. For 63 this he was censured in the Senate by Fabius Maximus, who called him the corruptor of the 64 Roman army. When Locri was destroyed by one of his legates,* the Locrians were not avenged 65 by him, nor was the arrogance of that legate corrected, all this arising from his easygoing 66 nature. Someone in the Senate who tried to excuse him declared that there were many men 67 who knew how not to err better than they knew how to correct their mistakes. In time such a 68 character* would have damaged Scipio’s fame and glory if he had long continued to command 69 armies, but, living under the control of the Senate, this harmful quality of his was not only 70 concealed but also contributed to his glory. 71 72 Let me conclude, then– returning to the issue of being feared and loved– that since men love at 73 their own pleasure and fear at the pleasure of the prince, the wise prince should build his 74 foundation upon that which is his own, not upon that which belongs to others: only he must 75 seek to avoid being hated, as I have said. 76 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 30 OF 71 XVIII How a prince should keep his word [Quomodo fides a principibus sit servanda] 1 How praiseworthy it is for a prince to keep his word and to live with integrity and not by 2 cunning, everyone knows. Nevertheless, one sees from experience in our times that the princes 3 who have accomplished great deeds are those who have thought little about keeping faith and 4 who have known how cunningly to manipulate men’s minds; and in the end they have 5 surpassed those who laid their foundations upon sincerity. 6 7 Therefore, you must know that there are two modes of fighting: one in accordance with the 8 laws, the other with force.* The first is proper to man, the second to beasts. But because the 9 first, in many cases, is not sufficient, it becomes necessary to have recourse to the second: 10 therefore, a prince must know how to make good use of the natures of both the beast and the 11 man. This rule was taught to princes symbolically by the writers of antiquity: they recounted 12 how Achilles and many others of those ancient princes were given to Chiron the centaur to be 13 raised and cared for under his discipline. This can only mean* that, having a half-beast and 14 half-man as a teacher, a prince must know how to employ the nature of the one and the other; 15 for the one without the other is not lasting. 16 17 Since, then, a prince must know how to make use of the nature of the beast, he should choose 18 from among the beasts the fox and the lion;* for the lion cannot defend itself from traps, while 19 the fox cannot protect itself from the wolves. It is therefore necessary to be a fox, in order to 20 recognize the traps, and a lion, in order to frighten the wolves: those who base their behaviour 21 only on the lion do not understand things. A wise ruler, therefore, cannot and should not keep 22 his word when such an observance would be to his disadvantage, and when the reasons that 23 caused him to make a promise are removed. If men were all good, this precept would not be 24 good. But since men are a wicked lot and will not keep their promises to you, you likewise need 25 not keep yours to them. A prince never lacks legitimate reasons to colour over his failure to 26 keep his word.* Of this, one could cite an endless number of modern examples to show how 27 many pacts and how many promises have been made null and void because of the 28 faithlessness of princes; and he who has known best how to use the ways of the fox has come 29 out best. But it is necessary to know how to colour over this nature effectively, and to be a 30 great pretender and dissembler. Men are so simple-minded and so controlled by their 31 immediate needs that he who deceives will always find someone who will let himself be 32 deceived. 33 34 I do not wish to remain silent about one of these recent examples. Alexander VI never did 35 anything else, nor thought about anything else, than to deceive men, and he always found 36 someone to whom he could do this. There never has been a man who asserted anything with 37 more effectiveness, nor whose affirmations rested upon greater oaths, who observed them less. 38 Nevertheless, his deceptions always succeeded to his heart’s desire, since he knew this aspect 39 of the world very well. 40 41 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 31 OF 71 Therefore, it is not necessary for a prince to possess all of the above-mentioned qualities, but it 42 is very necessary for him to appear to possess them. Furthermore, I shall dare to assert this: 43 that having them and always observing them is harmful, but appearing to observe them is 44 useful: for instance, to appear merciful, faithful, humane, trustworthy, religious, and to be so; 45 but with his mind disposed in such a way that, should it become necessary not to be so, he will 46 be able and know how to change to the opposite. One must understand this: a prince, and 47 especially a new prince, cannot observe all those things for which men are considered good, 48 because in order to maintain the state he must often act against his faith, against charity, 49 against humanity, and against religion. And so it is necessary that he should have a mind 50 ready to turn itself according to the way the winds of Fortune and the changing circumstances 51 command him. And, as I said above, he should not depart from the good if it is possible to do 52 so, but he should know how to enter into evil when forced by necessity. 53 54 Therefore, a prince must be very careful never to let anything fall from his lips that is not 55 imbued with the five qualities mentioned above; to those seeing and hearing him, he should 56 appear to be all mercy, all faithfulness, all integrity, all humanity, and all religion. And there is 57 nothing more necessary than to seem to possess this last quality. Men in general judge more 58 by their eyes than their hands: everyone can see, but few can feel. Everyone sees what you 59 seem to be, few touch upon what you are, and those few do not dare to contradict the opinion 60 of the many who have the majesty of the state to defend them. In the actions of all men, and 61 especially of princes, where there is no tribunal to which to appeal, one must consider the final 62 result.* Therefore, let a prince conquer and maintain the state, and his methods will always be 63 judged honourable and praised by all. For ordinary people are 64 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 32 OF 71 Erasmus, “Excluded from Heaven” (1514) 1 2 After a reign of ten years, Pope Julius II died on February 21, 1513; he was seventy years old, 3 and Leo X, a humanist and a Medici succeeded him. Less than a year later the anonymous 4 satire Julius Excluded from Heaven was published. There is no conclusive evidence that the 5 brilliant Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) wrote it. He several times implied 6 that he didn't-though without saying so explicitly. There were of course very good reasons for 7 not avowing the publication, not least the possibility of retribution from ex-friends or -allies of 8 Julius. The pamphlet was enormously popular and many times reprinted; but Erasmus had 9 little to gain and much to lose from claiming it. Though he never actually did so, modern 10 scholarship, basing itself on internal evidence, some cautious phrases in the later 11 correspondence, and the lack of a credible alternative author, has had little hesitation in 12 assigning the piece to Erasmus. Actually, the relation of the satire to Julius II is more 13 problematic than its relation to Erasmus. That Julius was one of the most secular-minded of 14 many secular-minded Renaissance popes is not open to question; and Erasmus, who found 15 that a fault, might have aggravated it, had he chosen, by emphasizing the pope's huge building 16 programs in Rome, his patronage of Michelangelo, Bramante, and Raphael, his lavish 17 purchases of antique sculptures and manuscripts for the Vatican collections. But these 18 charges would not have blackened the dead pope's reputation as much as other abusive 19 accusations that the satirist could pick up from the gutter or invent out of whole cloth. 20 Pederasty, simony [the selling of church offices for money], nepotism, and subornation to 21 murder are only a few of these invented charges; in addition, Erasmus unfailingly interprets all 22 of Julius's behavior in the worst possible light. There is a wholly different side to the picture of 23 Julius given by Erasmus, according to which he was a deft diplomat, a financier of Genius, and 24 one of the ablest administrators ever to occupy the chair of Peter. Exclusus, then, is not a 25 portrait of a real pope but an extravagant caricature rising out of a theme dear to Erasmus's 26 heart, a contrast between the spiritual and the worldly life. It is also a comic masterpiece. 27 28 Excluded from Heaven: A Dialogue 29 Speakers: Julius, his Genius, Peter 30 31 JULIUS: What the devil is this? The doors don't open? Somebody must have changed the lock 32 or broken it. 33 34 GENIUS: It seems more likely that you didn't bring the proper key; for this door doesn't open to 35 the same key as a secret money-chest. Why didn't you bring both the keys you have? This is 36 the key of power, not of wisdom. 37 38 JULIUS: I didn't have any other key but this; I don't see why we need a different one when 39 we've got this. 40 41 GENIUS: I don't either; but the fact is, we're still on the outside. 42 43 JULIUS: Now I'm really getting mad; I'll knock the doors down. Ho! Ho! Somebody come and 44 open this door right away! What's the hang-up? Nobody home? What's the matter with the 45 doorman? He's asleep, I guess, or else drunk. 46 47 GENIUS: This fellow judges everyone else by himself. 48 49 PETER: A good thing our gates are of adamant, otherwise this one, whoever he is, would have 50 kicked them in. He must be a giant of some sort, a general of the armies, a stormer of cities. 51 But oh my God, what a sewer-stench is this! I certainly won't open the gates right away, but 52 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 33 OF 71 take a seat up here by a grated window where I can look out and keep an eye on the scene. 53 Who are you and what do you want? 54 55 JULIUS: Open the door, will you? At least, if you can. And if you were really doing your job, it 56 should have been open long ago, and decorated with all the heraldry of heaven. 57 58 PETER: Pretty lordly. But first tell me who you are. 59 60 JULIUS: As if you couldn't see for yourself. 61 62 PETER: See? What I see is new to me, like nothing I ever saw before, and I might say 63 monstrous. 64 65 JULIUS: But if you're not stone-blind, you're bound to recognize this key, even if you aren't 66 familiar with the golden oak tree. You can certainly see my triple crown, as well as my cloak all 67 gleaming with gold and gems. 68 69 PETER: That silver key of yours I do recognize, though there's only one of them, and it's very 70 different from those that were given to me long ago by the one true shepherd of the church, 71 that is, Christ. But that glorious crown of yours, how could I possibly recognize it? No tyrant 72 ruling over barbarian peoples ever ventured to wear one like it, much less anyone who came 73 here asking for admission. Your cloak doesn't impress me either; for I always used to consider 74 gold and jewels as trash to be despised. But what does this amount to really? In all this stuff-75 the key, the crown, the cloak-I recognize marks of that rascally cheat and impostor who shared 76 a name with me but not a faith, that scoundrel Simon whom I once flung down with the aid of 77 Christ. 78 79 JULIUS: Enough of these jokes, and watch yourself; for I, if you don't know, am Julius of 80 Liguria, and I don't doubt you recognize these two letters P. M., unless you've forgotten how to 81 read. 82 83 PETER: I expect they stand for "Pestiferous Maximus." 84 85 GENIUS: Ha ha ha! This porter is as good as a wizard; he's got the needle's touch. 86 87 JULIUS: What it means is "Pontifex Maximus." 88 89 PETER: If you were triply great, greater even than Hermes Trismegistus, you still wouldn't get 90 in here unless you were supremely good, that is, holy. 91 92 JULIUS: Well, if it comes down to comparative holiness, you've got some nerve to keep me 93 waiting outside here when for all these centuries you've only been called "holy," whereas 94 nobody ever called me anything but "most holy." I have six thousand bulls to prove it. 95 96 GENIUS: That's what he said, bulls! 97 98 JULIUS: -in which I am not only named "Lord most holy," but addressed as "your holiness," so 99 that whatever I chose to do. 100 101 GENIUS: -Even when he was drunk. 102 103 JULIUS: -people used to say that the holiness of the most holy lord had done it. 104 105 PETER: Then you'd better ask those flatterers of yours to let you into heaven, because they're 106 the ones who made you so holy. They provided the holiness, now let them provide the bliss. By 107 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 34 OF 71 the way, though I know you don't think it matters, do you actually imagine you were a holy 108 man? 109 110 JULIUS: You really vex me. If I were only allowed to go on living, I wouldn't envy you your 111 holiness or your bliss, either one. 112 113 PETER: The proper expression of a pious mind! But apart from that, when I look you over from 114 head to foot, I see many a sign of impiety and none of holiness. What's the meaning of these 115 many comrades of yours? They're certainly not a papal retinue. You have almost twenty 116 thousand men at your back, and in this entire crowd I can't find one single individual who has 117 so much as the face of a Christian. I see a horrifying mob of ruffians, reeking of nothing but 118 brothels, booze shops, and gunpowder. They look to me like plain highway robbers or spooks 119 stolen out of hell and now intent on stirring up wars in heaven. As for yourself, the more I look 120 at you, the fewer traces do I see of any apostolic character. What sort of unnatural 121 arrangement is it, that while you wear the robes of a priest of God, under them you are dressed 122 in the bloody armor of a warrior? Besides that, what a savage pair of eyes, what baleful 123 features, what a menacing brow, what a disdainful and arrogant expression! I'm ashamed to 124 say, and even to see, that there's no part of your body not marked with traces of outrageous 125 and abominable lust; in addition, you belch and stink like a man just come from a drunken 126 debauch and fresh from a fit of vomiting. Judging from the appearance of your whole body, you 127 seem to me, not worn out by age or disease, but broken down and shriveled up by drunken 128 excesses. 129 130 GENIUS: How vividly he portrays the man in his own colors! 131 132 PETER: I see you threatening me with your lofty expression; but my feelings won't be 133 suppressed. I suspect you may be that most pestilent pagan of all, Julius the Roman, returned 134 from hell to make mock of our system. Certainly everything about you agrees well with him. 135 136 JULIUS: Ma di si! 137 138 PETER: What did he say? 139 140 GENIUS: He's angry. At that expression, every one of the cardinals used to take flight, 141 otherwise they'd feel the stick of his holiness on their backs, especially if he hadn't had his 142 supper. 143 144 PETER: You seem to me to have some understanding of the man; tell me, who are you? 145 146 GENIUS: I am the particular of Julius. 147 148 PETER: His bad Genius, no doubt. 149 150 GENIUS: Whatever I may be, I'm Julius's man. 151 152 JULIUS: Why don't you stop all this nonsense and open the doors? Perhaps you'd rather I 153 broke them down. Why do we need all this palaver? You see the sort of troops I have at my 154 command. 155 156 PETER: I do indeed see some highly practiced thieves. But you must be aware that these doors 157 can only be opened in other ways. 158 159 JULIUS: Enough words, I say. If you don't hurry up and open the gates, I'll unleash my 160 thunderbolt of excommunication with which I used to terrify great kings on earth and their 161 kingdoms too. You see, I've already got a bull prepared for the occasion. 162 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 35 OF 71 163 PETER: Just tell me, please, what you mean by all this bombast about bulls, bolts of thunder, 164 and maledictions. I never heard from Christ a single one of these words. 165 166 JULIUS: You'll feel their full force, if you don't watch out. 167 168 PETER: Perhaps you used to terrify people with that bluster, but it counts for nothing here. 169 Here we deal only in the truth. This is a fortress to be captured with good deeds, not ugly 170 words. But let me ask you, since you threaten men with the thunder of excommunication; 171 what's your legal authority for that? 172 173 JULIUS: Very well: I take it you are now out of office and have no more standing than any other 174 unbeneficial priest; indeed, you're not even a complete priest, since you lack the power to 175 consecrate. 176 177 PETER: Doubtless because I happen to be dead. 178 179 JULIUS: Obviously. 180 181 PETER: But for the same reason, you have no more standing with me than any other dead 182 man. 183 184 JULIUS: But as long as the cardinals are arguing over the election of a new pope, it counts as 185 my administration. 186 187 GENIUS: He's still dreaming dreams about being alive! 188 189 JULIUS: But now, open the door, I tell you. 190 191 PETER: And I won't do a thing, I tell you, unless you give me a full account of your merits. 192 193 JULIUS: What merits? 194 195 PETER: Let me explain the idea. Did you distinguish yourself in theology? 196 197 JULIUS: Not at all. I had no time for it, being continually engaged in warfare. Besides, there are 198 plenty of priests to do that sort of work. 199 200 PETER: Then by the holiness of your life you gained many souls for Christ? 201 202 GENIUS: Many more for hell, I'd say. 203 204 PETER: You performed miracles? 205 206 JULIUS: You're talking old-fashioned nonsense. 207 208 PETER: You prayed earnestly and constantly? 209 210 JULIUS: This is pure foolishness. 211 212 PETER: You subdued the lusts of the flesh with fasts and long vigils? 213 214 GENIUS: Enough of this, please; with this line of questioning, you're just wasting your time. 215 216 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 36 OF 71 PETER: I never heard of any other gifts that an outstanding pope was supposed to possess. If 217 he has some more apostolic talents, let him tell me about them himself. 218 219 JULIUS: Though it's a disgraceful thing for who never lowered his crest before anyone else to 220 yield to Peter-who was, to say nothing worse, a lowly fisherman and almost a beggar-still, just 221 to let you know what sort of prince you're slighting in this way, now hear this. In the first 222 place, I am from Liguria, not a Jew like you; but I'm afraid that like you I was once a boatman. 223 224 GENIUS: It's nothing to be ashamed of, for there's still this difference that Peter fished for a 225 living, while plied the oar on a barge for minimum wages. 226 227 JULIUS: Then, as it happened that I was the nephew of Pope Sixtus the great. 228 229 GENIUS: Great in vices, he means. 230 231 JULIUS: -on his sister's side, his special favor combined with my industry first gave me access 232 to ecclesiastical office; and so I gradually rose to the dignity of a cardinal's cap. Having 233 undergone many reverses of fortune, and been tossed to and fro by various accidents-having 234 suffered, among other diseases, from epilepsy and the pox they call French -I found myself 235 quite overwhelmed; I was exiled, rejected, despised, despaired of, and almost given over as lost. 236 Yet I never doubted that some day I would attain the papacy. That showed real strength of 237 character, compared with you, who were terrified at the question of a serving girl, and gave up 238 your faith on the spot. She weakened your courage, but I got new courage from a woman, a 239 soothsayer and prophetess of sorts, who when she saw me overwhelmed with misfortunes 240 secretly whispered in my ear, "Bear up, Julius! Don't be ashamed of anything you have to do or 241 put up with some day you will attain the triple crown. You will be king of kings and ruler of all 242 rulers." And in fact neither her prophecy nor my own instincts deceived me. Beyond all 243 expectations I achieved my goal, partly with the help of the French who sheltered me in my 244 hour of need, partly by the marvelous power of money in large quantities, which I increased by 245 taking usurious rates of interest. And finally my own ready wit helped me. 246 247 PETER: What's this ready wit you're talking about? 248 249 JULIUS: -to coin money from the bare promise of ecclesiastical offices, making skillful use of 250 brokers in the process, since the sums I demanded couldn't have been paid in cash by a man 251 as rich as Crassus. But it's useless to describe the schemes to you, since not even all my 252 bankers understood them. Anyhow, that's how I made my way. Now as for how I bore myself in 253 the pontificate, I'll venture to say that none of the early popes (who seem to me to have been 254 popes in name only), nor even of the later ones, deserve so well of the church and of Christ 255 himself as I do. 256 257 GENIUS: Only listen to the bragging of the beast! 258 259 PETER: I'm waiting to hear how you got away with it all. 260 261 JULIUS: I discovered a great many new offices (that's what they're called) which in themselves 262 brought goodly sums into the papal treasury. Then I found a brand-new way by which 263 bishoprics could be bought without any taint of simony. For my predecessors had made a law 264 that any man appointed bishop should lay down his previous office. I interpreted it this way; 265 "You are ordered to lay down your previous office; but if you don't have one you can't lay it 266 down, therefore you must buy it." By this means each individual bishopric brought in its six or 267 seven thousand ducats over and above those that are traditionally extorted for bulls. Also the 268 new money that I spread all over Italy brought in a very healthy sum. And I never let up on 269 accumulating money, understanding as I did that without it nothing is managed properly, 270 whether sacred or profane. Now, to come to my major achievements, I conquered Bologna, 271 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 37 OF 71 which had long been ruled by the Bentivogli, and restored it to the control of Rome. The 272 previously undefeated Venetians I crushed with my army. For a long time I harassed the duke 273 of Ferrara, and nearly caught him in a trap. I cleverly escaped from a schismatic council set up 274 against me by convoking a fraudulent counter-council, and so, as they say, drove out one nail 275 with another. Finally, I expelled from Italy the French, who at that time were the terrors of the 276 whole world, and I would have driven out the Spanish too (for I had that project under way), if 277 the fates had not suddenly removed me from the earth. And I ask you to admire my undaunted 278 spirit throughout these trials. When the French looked like winners, I was already looking 279 around for a good hiding place; when my position seemed almost desperate, I grew a long white 280 beard as a disguise. But then the golden messenger of victory alighted unexpectedly on me at 281 Ravenna, where a good many thousand Frenchmen were killed; and that was the resurrection 282 of Julius. In fact, for three days I was believed to be at death's door; I thought so myself; and 283 yet here again, against everyone's hopes and even my own expectations, I lived anew. In fact 284 my power and my political shrewdness are so great to this day that there's none of the 285 Christian kings whom I haven't brought to blows, breaking up the treaties by which they had 286 painfully made peace with one another, ripping them to pieces, and trampling them underfoot. 287 Indeed, I was so successful in abolishing the treaty of Cambrai, made between me, the king of 288 France, the emperor Maximilian, and several other rulers, that nobody ever mentions it any 289 more. Over and above all this, I raised several different armies, celebrated many grandiose 290 triumphs, put on splendid shows, built numerous impressive structures, and then at my death 291 left at least five million ducats, which I would have increased even further if that Jewish 292 physician who saved my life on one occasion had been able to stretch it out a little longer. And 293 I really wish now that some magician could be found to restore my earthly existence, so that I 294 could put the finishing touches on the really marvelous projects that I had under way. Still, on 295 my deathbed I tried to ensure that none of the wars I had stirred up throughout the world 296 should be settled; I ordered that moneys set aside for those wars should not be diverted 297 elsewhere; and that was my last wish as I breathed out my dying breath. Now do you hesitate 298 to open the gates for a pontiff who has deserved so well of Christ and the church? And I expect 299 you to be all the more impressed because all this was achieved by my individual constancy of 300 mind alone. I had none of those helpers and favoring circumstances that others have enjoyed; I 301 had no ancestors, for I didn't even know my own father (which indeed I say proudly); I had no 302 personal attractions, since most people shuddered at my face as at an ogre; I had no 303 education, since with me it never took; I had no physical strength, for reasons mentioned 304 above; I was not possessed of youthful energy, for I did all these things as an old man; 305 popularity played no part, for there was nobody who didn't hate me; and I got no credit for 306 clemency because I punished savagely those whom other rulers commonly let off scot-free. 307 308 PETER: What's this all about? 309 310 GENIUS: He talks very tough, but there's something soft in it. 311 312 JULIUS: Thus, with everything against me-fortune, age, strength, briefly, without help from 313 gods or men, by the unaided power of my spirit and my money, I accomplished in a few years 314 so much, that my successors will be busy for at least a decade deciding what to do next. I've 315 said all this about myself with the utmost truth and also, for that matter, with the utmost 316 honesty. If one of those preachers who orate before me in Rome had been here to cover my 317 account with his decorations, you'd have thought a god was being described, not a man. 318 319 PETER: Unconquerable warrior, since all these things you talk about are new to me and 320 unheard-of, I beg your pardon for my amazement or inexperience; I hope it won't be too 321 tiresome for you to answer a few clumsy questions about the details. Who, for example, are 322 these little curly-headed striplings? 323 324 JULIUS: I brought them up for my diversion. 325 326 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 38 OF 71 PETER: Who are these smoke-blackened and mutilated fellows? 327 328 JULIUS: They are soldiers and warriors who in behalf of me and the church bravely 329 encountered death in battle. Some died in the siege of Bologna, many in the war against the 330 Venetians, others still at Ravenna. They are all to be admitted to heaven by the terms of our 331 contract, in which I promised, by promulgating some mighty bulls, to send anyone straight to 332 heaven who died fighting for Julius, whatever his previous life had been like. 333 334 PETER: As far as I can see, these people must have been the very lot who before your coming 335 were most hateful to me because they were always trying to break in by force, using leaden 336 bulls to force their way. 337 338 JULIUS: Then, as I understand it, you didn't let any of them in? 339 340 PETER: Not a single one of that crowd did I admit. That's what Christ told me; he didn't say to 341 admit those who came here lugging heavy leaden bulls, but only those who had clothed the 342 naked, fed the hungry, given drink to the thirsty, visited the prisoners, aided the pilgrims. If he 343 wanted me to keep out those who prophesied in his name, cast our devils, and did wonderful 344 works. Do you suppose he would want people let in who just walk up with a bull in the name of 345 Julius? 346 347 JULIUS: If I had only known! 348 349 PETER: I understand; if some demon out of hell had told you about it, you would have declared 350 war on me. 351 352 JULIUS: I would have excommunicated you first. 353 354 PETER: But go on, why do you go about wearing armor? 355 356 JULIUS: As if you didn't know the holy pope wields two swords; you wouldn't want me to go 357 into battle unarmed, would you? 358 359 PETER: When I held your position, I followed that rule in the word of God which says to use no 360 sword save that of the spirit. 361 362 JULIUS: That would surprise Malchus, whose ear you cut off-without a sword, no doubt. 363 364 PETER: I recall the event, and it's true; but at that time I was fighting for my master, Christ, 365 not for myself; for the life of the Lord, not for loot or worldly booty; and I fought, not as pope, 366 but as one to whom the keys had only been promised, not delivered, nor had I yet received the 367 holy spirit. All the same, I was ordered to put up my sword as a clear warning that warfare of 368 that sort was unbecoming to priests and even to Christians in general. But more of this 369 elsewhere. Why are you so careful about calling yourself a Ligurian as if it mattered what part 370 of the earth the vicar of Christ came from? 371 372 JULIUS: But I consider it an act of the highest piety to shed renown on my people; that's why I 373 have this title inscribed on all my coins, statues, structures, and arches. 374 375 PETER: So a man can recognize his fatherland who doesn't know his father? At first I thought 376 you had in mind that heavenly Jerusalem, the home of all true believers and of its unique 377 prince in whose name those believers are eager to be sanctified and exalted. But why do you 378 describe yourself as "nephew to Sixtus on his sister's side"? I'm surprised that this man Sixtus 379 never showed up here, though he was pope and related to such a leader as yourself. Do tell me, 380 if you will, what kind of man he was; was he a priest? 381 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 39 OF 71 382 JULIUS: A might soldier he was, and a man of exemplary religion too; he was a Franciscan. 383 384 PETER: Indeed, I once knew a man named Francis, a layman distinguished among his fellows 385 for virtue as well as his scorn for wealth, pleasure, and ambition. Does that poor man now have 386 command of military commanders like this? 387 388 JULIUS: As far as I can see, you don't want anyone to better himself; even Benedict was a poor 389 man once, but now his followers are so rich that even I am envious of them. 390 391 PETER: Fine! But let's go back a ways: you are the nephew of Sixtus. 392 393 JULIUS: Glad to confirm it; I'd like to stop the mouths of those who say I'm his son. That's 394 slanderous. 395 396 PETER: Slanderous indeed-unless perhaps it's true. 397 398 JULIUS: It's an insult to papal dignity, which must always be protected. 399 400 PETER: But I think popes should protect their own dignity by not doing anything offensive to 401 the moral law. Speaking of papal dignity, let me ask you, is that the common and accepted way 402 of achieving the papacy that you were describing just now? 403 404 JULIUS: For some centuries now, that's been the way of it, unless my successor is created by 405 some other procedure. For as soon as I achieved the papacy myself, I issued a formidable bull 406 that no one else should seek the office by the means I had used; and I renewed that bull 407 shortly before my death. How it will be observed is up to other people. 408 409 PETER: I don't see how anyone could describe a bad state of affairs any better. But this puzzles 410 me, how anybody can be found to undertake the job, since so much hard work attaches to the 411 office and so many difficulties must be overcome to acquire it. When I was pope, hardly anyone 412 could be persuaded to accept the office of a presbyter or a deacon. 413 414 JULIUS: No wonder; for in those days the reward of bishops was nothing but hard work, 415 sleepless nights, constant study, and very often death: now, it's a kingdom, with the privileges 416 of a tyrant. And who, if he has a chance of a kingdom, won't grab at it? 417 418 PETER: Well, tell me now about Bologna. Had it departed from the faith that it had to be 419 brought back to Rome? 420 421 JULIUS: Absurd! That wasn't the question at all. 422 423 PETER: Perhaps the Bentivogli were poor administrators and destroying the prosperity of the 424 city. 425 426 JULIUS: Not a bit of it; the town was flourishing as never before, they had enlarged it and 427 adorned it with many new buildings. That only made me more eager for it. 428 429 PETER: I understand; they had taken possession of it illegally. 430 431 JULIUS: No, again; the city was theirs by treaty. 432 433 PETER: Perhaps the citizens hated their ruler? 434 435 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 40 OF 71 JULIUS: On the contrary; they clung to him tooth and nail, whereas they almost all loathed 436 me. 437 438 PETER: What was the reason for it then? 439 440 JULIUS: Because, as the ruler arranged things, out of the immense sums that he collected 441 from the citizens, only a few paltry thousands ever reached my treasury. Besides, its capture 442 helped on some other plans that I had in mind. And so, with the French doing the work (mostly 443 out of fear of my thunderbolt), I drove out the Bentivogli and put bishops and cardinals in 444 charge of the town, so that all the money collected there, down to the last penny, came into the 445 hands of the church of Rome. Besides, in the old days, all the titles and dignities of imperial 446 rule seemed to belong to him. Now you see everywhere statues of me; my titles are inscribed 447 everywhere, my trophies are admired; nothing to be seen but stone and bronze images of 448 Julius. Finally, if you had seen the royal procession in which I entered Bologna, you would 449 surely despise all the triumphs celebrated by the Octavii and Scipios; you would understand 450 that there were good reasons why I fought so hard for Bologna; and you would see that at the 451 same time the church was fighting and triumphing alongside me. 452 453 PETER: So when you were the monarch, as I understand it, that condition had come about for 454 which Christ ordered us to pray: "Thy kingdom come." Now tell me what the Venetians did 455 wrong. 456 457 JULIUS: First of all, they ran after Greek fashions, and they treated me almost as a joke, 458 putting all sorts of obstacles in my way. 459 460 PETER: Were they right or wrong? 461 462 JULIUS: What does that matter? It's sacrilege even to mumble about the pope of Rome, except 463 in the way of praise. Then they bestowed their priesthoods as they saw fit; they wouldn't allow 464 lawsuits to be transferred to Rome; and they wouldn't allow the selling of dispensations. Do I 465 have to go on? They inflicted unbearable damage on the authority of Rome, and took command 466 of a significant part of your patrimony. 467 468 PETER: My patrimony? What patrimony are you talking about to me, who left all my 469 possessions behind to follow, unclad, a barefoot Christ? 470 471 JULIUS: I say that various cities are the property of the Roman church, and it has pleased the 472 most holy fathers to call by that name these their own special possessions. 473 474 PETER: Thus you use my shame to cover your own greed. And so this is what you call 475 unbearable damage? 476 477 JULIUS: Why not? 478 479 PETER: Were their manners corrupted? Was piety growing cold? 480 481 JULIUS: Forget it! You’re talking about trifles. We were being deprived of thousands upon 482 thousands of ducats, enough to furnish out a legion of soldiers. 483 484 PETER: A terrible loss for a usurer, I'm sure. And now about the duke of Ferrara, what was the 485 matter with him? 486 487 JULIUS: What did he do, that most ungrateful of men? Alexander the vicar of Christ did this 488 miserable rogue the honor of bestowing on him, as a wife, his second daughter, and with her 489 he gave an enormous dowry, more than a man so base of birth could have expected. Yet, 490 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 41 OF 71 indifferent to such humane treatment, he made nothing but trouble for me, accusing me of 491 simony, pederasty, and mental instability. And besides, he held back some taxes, not the major 492 ones, I concede, but still important enough not to be overlooked by a diligent shepherd. 493 494 GENIUS: Or a skinflint. 495 496 JULIUS: Besides, which is more to the point, Ferrara helped along the main project I had in 497 mind to join this territory to my own because of its strategic location. At first I wanted to 498 bestow the city on my kinsman, a man of energy who would have ventured anything in behalf 499 of the dignity of the church. In fact, he recently killed the cardinal of Pavia with his own hands, 500 in my behalf. As for my daughter's husband, he isn't the political sort. 501 502 PETER: What's this I hear? Do popes have wives and children nowadays? 503 504 JULIUS: Proper wives they don't have; but what's so strange about their having children, since 505 they're men and not eunuchs? 506 507 PETER: But what sort of events led to the calling of that schismatic council? 508 509 JULIUS: It's a long story, but I'll cut it short. For a long time some people have been 510 discontented with the Roman church. They complained of the shameful money-grubbing, of 511 monstrous and abominable lusts, of poisonings, sacrilege, murders, public sales of simoniacal 512 positions, pollution of every description. They called me a simonist, a drunkard, a low villain 513 swollen with earthly lusts, and on every count the man least worthy of occupying the position 514 that in fact I occupied; they called me the greatest of all perils to the Christian community. And 515 in this troubled state of affairs they thought help was to be sought from a general council of the 516 church. They added that I had sworn when I was created pope to call a general council within 517 two years, asserting that I was created pope only on that condition. 518 519 PETER: Were they right about that? 520 521 JULIUS: Absolutely. But when it suited my convenience to do so, I absolved myself of my own 522 oath. When a king wants to break his solemn oath, who has any doubt that he can do it? Keep 523 your piety for another occasion, as the first 524 525 Julius, my other self, used to say. But only note the audacity of these men, the schemes they 526 devised. Nine cardinals made a separation, notified me of a council to be called, and invited me 527 to attend, even to preside. When I declined, they announced the council to the whole world in 528 the name of the emperor Maximilian (under the pretext that years ago councils used to be 529 called by Roman emperors) and likewise Louis of France, the twelfth of that name. What they 530 proposed-I shudder to say it-was to rip up the seamless garment of Christ, which even those 531 who crucified the Savior left untorn. 532 533 PETER: But were you the sort of man they said? 534 535 JULIUS: What has that got to do with it? I was pope. Suppose I was a worse rascal than the 536 Cercopes, stupider than a wooden statue or the log from which it was made, more foul than the 537 swamp of Lerna; whoever holds this key of power must be revered as the Vicar of Christ and 538 reverenced as the holiest of men. 539 540 PETER: Even if he's openly evil? 541 542 JULIUS: As open as you like. It's just unthinkable that God's vicar on earth, who represents 543 God himself before men, should be rebuked by any puny mortal or disturbed by any sort of 544 popular outcry. 545 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 42 OF 71 546 PETER: But common sense is outraged if we must feel warmly toward one whom we see to be 547 evil, or speak well of one about whom we think ill. 548 549 JULIUS: Let every man think as he will, as long as he speaks well or at least holds his tongue. 550 The pope of Rome cannot be censured by anyone, not by a general council. 551 552 PETER: This one thing I know, that Christ's vicar on earth should be as much like him as 553 possible, and lead his life in such a way that nobody can blame any part of it, or justifiably 554 speak evil of him. Things go badly with popes when, instead of earning men's commendations 555 by good deeds, they extort praises with threats. Such popes cannot be praised without lying; 556 indeed, they can't expect anything more than the sullen silence of those who hate them. Tell 557 me now truly, is there no way at all to correct a criminal, infectious pope? 558 559 JULIUS: Absurd. Who is going to remove the highest authority of all? 560 561 PETER: That's exactly why he should be removed, because he's the highest figure; for the 562 higher he is, the more pernicious his influence may be. If secular laws allow for a king who 563 rules his land badly to be not only deposed but executed, why should the church be so helpless 564 that it must put up with a pope who ruins everything, instead of expelling him as a public 565 nuisance? 566 567 JULIUS: If the pope is to be corrected, it ought to be by a council; but against the will of the 568 pope a council can't be called; otherwise it would be a mere convention, not a proper council. 569 Even if it were called, it couldn't issue any decrees if the pope objected. And finally, my last 570 defense is absolute power, of which the pope possesses more, all by himself, than an entire 571 council. In short, the pope can't be removed from office for any crime whatever. 572 573 PETER: Not for homicide? 574 575 JULIUS: Not for parricide. 576 577 PETER: Not for fornication? 578 579 JULIUS: Ridiculous! Not even for incest. 580 581 PETER: Not for the sin of simony? 582 583 JULIUS: Not for six hundred such sins. 584 585 PETER: Not for poisoning someone? 586 587 JULIUS: Not even for sacrilege. 588 589 PETER: Not for blasphemy? 590 591 JULIUS: No, I say. 592 593 PETER: Not for all these crimes poured together in a single sewer of a man? 594 595 JULIUS: Add if you like the names of six hundred other vices, each one worse than any of 596 these, and still the pope cannot be removed from his throne for any such reasons. 597 598 PETER: This is a new doctrine about the dignity of the pope that I've picked up here; he alone, 599 it seems, is entitled to be the worst of men. I've also learned about a new misery for the church, 600 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 43 OF 71 that she alone is unable to rid herself of such a monster, but is forced to adore a pope with a 601 character that nobody would endure in a stable-boy. 602 603 JULIUS: Some say there is a single reason for which a pope can be removed. 604 605 PETER: What kind of good deed is that, please tell me-since he can't be removed for evil deeds, 606 such as those I've mentioned. 607 608 JULIUS: For the crime of heresy; but only if he's been publicly convicted of it. In reality, this is 609 just a flimsy thread of an exception, that doesn't limit papal authority by a single scintilla. The 610 pope can always repeal the law, if it bothers him in the least. And then who would dare to 611 accuse the pope himself, entrenched as he is behind so many lines of defense? Besides, if he 612 were hard pressed by a council, it would be easy to save face with a recantation if a flat denial 613 didn't dispose of the matter. Finally, there are a thousand different deceptions and evasions by 614 which he could get away, unless he were a plain wooden stock instead of a man. 615 616 PETER: But tell me on your papal authority, who thought up such splendid laws as these? 617 618 JULIUS: Who else but the wellspring of all laws, the Roman pope? And by the same token, it's 619 his privilege to abrogate the law, interpret it, expand it, or shrink it, just as suits his 620 convenience. 621 622 PETER: A happy pope he must be if he can propound a law by which he can get around Christ 623 and even a council. Though as a matter of fact, against a pope of the sort you've just described-624 an open criminal, a drunkard, a murderer, a simoniac, a poisoner, a perjurer, a skinflint, a 625 man befouled in every part of his life with the most atrocious and disgusting lusts, and 626 completely shameless about it all-I wouldn't propose a general council but a public uprising: 627 the people should arm themselves with stones and expel such an infectious plague forever from 628 their midst. -Tell me now, what reason you have as pope of Rome to avoid a general council? 629 630 JULIUS: You might as well ask monarchs why they hate senates and assemblies of the nobility. 631 Because a gathering of so many excellent men casts a shadow over the royal dignity. Those 632 who are learned gain assurance from their reading; those who answer only to a clear 633 conscience speak their minds more freely than I like; those who have been granted dignities 634 make use of their new authority. Among them some are always to be found who envy my glory, 635 and approach every issue with an eye to diminishing the wealth and authority of the pope. In 636 short, nobody sits in such assemblies who doesn't think himself entitled to put forth, under the 637 authority of the council, something prejudicial to the pope-whom otherwise he wouldn't dare 638 assail. Thus hardly any council concludes its work without the pope's suffering some 639 diminution of his authority; he departs less supreme than he came. You yourself can provide 640 an example of this, if you recall the incident; for although in those days only trifles were being 641 discussed, not empires and kingdoms as now, nonetheless James ventured to add something 642 to your decision. The case was that you had freed converted gentiles entirely from the Mosaic 643 Law, but James made an exception for fornication, idolatry, and crimes of blood, as if 644 correcting your judgment. Some people, if they were judging this matter today, would think the 645 supreme authority of the church should be granted to James instead of Peter. 646 647 PETER: You think, then, that the only thing to be considered is the royal authority of the 648 papacy rather than the welfare of the entire Christian community? 649 650 JULIUS: Every man must look to his own interests; I mind my own affairs. 651 652 PETER: But if Christ had felt this way, there would be no church for you to boast of ruling; and 653 I still don't think it right that one who claims to be Christ's vicar on earth should follow a path 654 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 44 OF 71 different from Christ's. But tell me now, what tricks did you use to get rid of that schismatic 655 council, as you call it? 656 657 JULIUS: I can tell you if you can follow the story. First of all I got to the emperor Maximilian (as 658 they call him); he was the easiest to manipulate, and though he had solemnly proclaimed the 659 council, by methods that I'd rather not describe, I got him to withdraw. Then I persuaded 660 various cardinals in the same way that they ought to withdraw their support for the council as 661 publicly as they had proclaimed it. 662 663 PETER: Was that legal? 664 665 JULIUS: What isn't legal if the pope with his full authority approves it? 666 667 PETER: What! Then if he chooses to say so an oath is not an oath, since he can dissolve it 668 whenever he wants, with regard to anyone? 669 670 JULIUS: Well, to speak frankly, this particular maneuver was a little shady, but I couldn't come 671 up with a better one at the moment. Then when I saw that some people hostile to me were 672 determined to have a council, and had drawn up the call so that, far from being excluded, I 673 was humbly invited and asked to preside, see what a trick I made use of, taking a hint from my 674 predecessors. I called a council of my own, declaring that the place and time set for the other 675 were quite unsuitable. I called my council to meet on very short notice at Rome, where I knew 676 nobody would come except a friend of Julius, or at least someone compliant to his wishes-it 677 was a lesson I had taught many times over. And just to make things sure, I created a number 678 of new cardinals with views favorable to my designs. 679 680 GENIUS: Criminal views, that is. 681 682 JULIUS: If I hadn't authorized the council, it would not have been one; yet it didn't really suit 683 my purposes to assemble a great crowd of bishops and abbots, among whom there might 684 conceivably be some honorable and pious men; so I decreed that in the name of economy, each 685 district should send only one delegate, or at most two. Then when I still didn't feel quite safe 686 enough, since there were so many districts that only a few from each would make a great 687 number, when they were already on the way, I issued an order forbidding them to continue and 688 putting off the council till a later date; for this I gave some trifling reason that lay to hand. 689 Then, when I had excluded practically everybody, I called my council at Rome, anticipating the 690 date I had set, and with nobody there except those I wanted. And even if a few were present 691 who might disagree with me, I knew there was nobody who would dare to challenge directly 692 because I had the upper hand in both troops and weapons. And in this way I was able to bring 693 enormous disrepute on that French council, sending out letters everywhere in which I talked 694 about our sacrosanct council, but denounced theirs as a conventicle of Satan, a gathering of 695 diabolic agents, a conspiracy of schismatics and repeating these epithets over and over. 696 697 PETER: The cardinals and princes who instigated that council must have been very great 698 rascals. 699 700 JULIUS: About their morals I never asked. The head of their group was cardinal d'Amboise of 701 Rouen, who out of some quirk of conscience was always trying to reform the church; and so he 702 did in a number of places. Death removed him from the arena, to my enormous gratification. 703 His successor was cardinal Santa Croce, a Spaniard, a man of blameless life, but elderly, set in 704 his ways, and a theologian; it's a breed of men particularly dangerous to the popes of Rome. 705 706 PETER: And did this theologian have no arguments to justify his behavior? 707 708 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 45 OF 71 JULIUS: Plenty. He said the times had never been more disturbed, nor the church more 709 afflicted with more intolerable diseases; and he called for a general council to heal them. He 710 and his colleagues reminded me that when I was received into the papacy, I solemnly swore to 711 call a council within two years; and the oath was so phrased that not even the College of 712 Cardinals could absolve me of it. Though I had often been reminded of it by my fellow 713 cardinals, queried and prodded by princes, they said I would listen to anything rather than 714 this, so that now it was apparent that during Julius's lifetime there would never be a council. 715 They cited the examples of previous councils, and quoted various papal decrees, purporting to 716 show that in refusing to call a council I was betraying the law itself; and with the connivance of 717 the other princes, they declared it was the duty of the Roman emperor (who used to have sole 718 responsibility in the matter) and the French king now to convoke a council. 719 720 PETER: No doubt they addressed you in vitriolic language? 721 722 JULIUS: No, the rascals were too smart for that; I'd have preferred some abuse. Painful though 723 the matter was, they treated it with the utmost discretion and not only refrained from bad 724 language but were careful to use all my titles of honor, begging and praying me by all things 725 holy and good to behave as was worthy of me, and as I had promised, by calling a council and 726 presiding over it, taking part with them in the work of curing the ailments of the church. I can't 727 tell you how much hostility this gentle temper of theirs raised against me, especially since they 728 grounded all their suggestions on holy scriptures -for apparently they had some men of 729 learning in their camp. And meanwhile they fasted and prayed and maintained a marvelously 730 frugal existence, to oppress me with the opinion of their holiness. 731 732 PETER: And you, on the other hand, on what grounds did you propose your council? 733 734 JULIUS: On the most magnificent grounds of all: I explained that it was my intention to reform 735 first the head of the church, that is, myself; then all the princes of the Christian world; and 736 finally the general population. 737 738 PETER: It sounds like a fine comedy; but what was the conclusion? I want to hear what those 739 theologians in the assembly of Satan determined. 740 741 JULIUS: Horrible, abominable things; my mind shrinks from remembering them. 742 743 PETER: Good lord! Was it as bad as that? 744 745 JULIUS: Downright impiety, sacrilege, worse than heresy; if I hadn't opposed them tooth and 746 nail, with every bit of my strength and craft, all the dignity of the Christian church would have 747 gone to rack and rum. 748 749 PETER: You make me even more eager to hear what it was. 750 751 JULIUS: Oh, I shudder to pronounce it. This is what the scoundrels were up to, that the 752 church should be stripped of all her wealth and all her splendor, returned to her primitive 753 squalor and wretched frugality. That cardinals, who now outdo princes in the pomp of their 754 equipage, should be reduced to poverty; that bishops should live more moderately, without 755 retainers, and without so many horses in their stables. They proposed that cardinals should 756 not accumulate extra positions, as for example bishops, abbots, and priests. Lest anybody hold 757 more than one bishopric, they proposed that those who by one dodge or another, as they say, 758 have accumulated livings by the hundred, should be deprived of some of them, and forced to 759 content themselves with the income intended for a single frugal priest. They said that nobody 760 should be created pope or bishop or priest as a result of money changing hands, or because of 761 worldly favor or base flattery, but only because of the purity of his life-which if he 762 compromised, it would be cause for removal. That a Roman pope convicted of flagrant crimes 763 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 46 OF 71 might be deposed; that bishops guilty of whoredom and drunkenness should be dismissed; 764 that criminal priests should not only be deprived but mutilated on some part of their body; 765 along with many other notions of the sort which it would weary me to recite but all tending to 766 one point, loading me down with religious duties and stripping me of my wealth and power. 767 768 PETER: What was decreed in the other direction by the sacrosanct council at Rome? 769 770 JULIUS: Now you seem to have forgotten what I told you, that I wanted nothing out of my 771 council except to drive out one nail with another. After the first session had been devoted to a 772 number of solemn ceremonies handed down from antiquity and generally acceptable, though 773 they had nothing to do with the matter to hand, two masses were said, one to the holy cross 774 and the other to the holy ghost, .as if everything was to be done in his name; and then there 775 was a long oration full of my praises. At the next session I turned the worst threats of my 776 thunderbolt against those cardinals, declaring that whatever they had said or would say in the 777 future was worse than impiety, more vicious than sacrilege, viler than heresy. In the third 778 session I threatened France with the same thunderbolt, transferring the trade fairs out of 779 Lyons and making an exception for certain parts of France, which I named, in order to alienate 780 the affections of the people from their king, and stir up seditions among them. And to give extra 781 authority to all these deeds, I issued a bull which I addressed to all the princes, especially 782 those who seemed inclined to favor me. 783 784 PETER: And that was all you accomplished? 785 786 JULIUS: I got what I wanted. I won out, at least if my decrees hold up. In public ceremonies I 787 deprived of their offices the three cardinals who remained obstinate, conferring their posts on 788 others in such a way that they could not easily be restored. Their persons I consigned to Satan, 789 though if they'd fallen in my hands I'd have been glad to consign them to the flames. 790 791 PETER: But if what you say is right, the decrees of that schismatic assembly seem to me a 792 good deal more holy than those of your sacrosanct council. I don't see that you produced 793 anything but tyrannical threats, curses, and cruelty combined with cunning. If Satan inspired 794 that other assembly, he seems closer to Christ than the spirit, for whom I don't even have a 795 name, who presided over your council. 796 797 JULIUS: Watch your step now; for in all my bulls I cursed thoroughly anyone who in any way 798 favored that assembly. 799 800 PETER: Wretch, in whom I seem to see old born again! But what was the outcome of this 801 business? 802 803 JULIUS: I left it in the state I described; how it will come out is up to the future. 804 805 PETER: SO the schism survives? 806 807 JULIUS: It survives, and grows every day more dangerous. 808 809 PETER: And you as the vicar of Christ preferred a schism before a genuine council? 810 811 JULIUS: Three hundred schisms rather than find myself forced into submission and a 812 reformation of my entire life. 813 814 PETER: SO you're as guilty as that? 815 816 JULIUS: What's that to you? 817 818 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 47 OF 71 PETER: I understand; you couldn't face the draining of that pestilential swamp. But which of 819 the two groups do you think will win out? 820 821 JULIUS: As I said, it's in the hands of fortune, though we have more money. France is 822 exhausted by her many long drawn-out wars; the English have mountains of gold still 823 untouched. This I can confidently predict: if the French win (which God forbid), all the names 824 will be turned around. My sacrosanct council will be an assembly of Satan; I will be, not a 825 pope, but the idol of a pope; they will have acted on the impulse of the holy ghost, and 826 everything we did will bear the mark of the devil. But I feel confident that the money I left 827 behind will keep that from happening. 828 829 PETER: But what inspired this hatred of the French and their king, on whom your 830 predecessors bestowed the title of the Most Christian King? Especially since you admit you 831 lived under their protection for a long time, and after they helped raise you to this more than 832 imperial throne, you received from them Bologna and other cities-and since, finally, with their 833 help you dominated the previously unbeaten Venetians? How did you wipe out the memory of 834 such recent assistance, and break such firm bonds? 835 836 JULIUS: It would take a long story to explain the whole thing; but to put it briefly, the change 837 wasn't an abrupt one; what I had been maturing in my mind for a long time I gradually began 838 to put into effect. At first, things standing as they did, I had to dissimulate, then I came out 839 openly. I never really liked the French, I tell you this from my heart, nor does any Italian 840 actually like the barbarians-any more, for God's sake, than a wolf is fond of lambs. But I'm not 841 just an Italian, I'm from Genoa; I treated them like friends as long as I needed their help, in the 842 way one always takes advantage of barbarians. In the process, I put up with a good deal, I 843 concealed my feelings, I did plenty of pretending. I endured a lot; I achieved a lot. But then 844 when things had reached the stage where I wanted them, I had only to act the role of the real 845 and drive that barbarian trash out of Italy. 846 847 PETER: What kind of animals are those you call barbarians? 848 849 JULIUS: They are men. 850 851 PETER: Men, then, but not Christians? 852 853 JULIUS: Yes, Christians too, but what does that matter? 854 855 PETER: Christians, then, but without laws or letters, leading a rude, uncultured life? 856 857 JULIUS: In some respects they're quite civilized; and besides, which is the thing we principally 858 envy them, they are very rich. 859 860 PETER: Why then this name of barbarian? What's that you're grumbling? 861 862 GENIUS: Let me speak for him. The Italians when they were overwhelmed and completely 863 submerged under a flood of really barbaric nations, as if from an overflowing sewer, picked up 864 this mannerism from classical literature of calling everyone born outside Italy a barbarian; this 865 epithet is more scornful, as they use it, than if they called someone a parricide or accused him 866 of robbing a church. 867 868 PETER: So it seems. But since Christ died for all men, and showed no respect of persons; and 869 since you claim to be Christ's vicar on earth; why don't you accept all men in the same spirit, 870 seeing that Christ himself did not discriminate? 871 872 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 48 OF 71 JULIUS: I would be delighted to accept everyone-Indians, Africans, Ethiopians, Greeks-as long 873 as they can count money and pay taxes. But we were right to cut them all off, and especially 874 the Greeks, because they are too stubborn in refusing to recognize the authority of the Roman 875 pope. 876 877 PETER: So the court of Rome is to be, as it were, the treasure chest of the whole world? 878 879 JULIUS: Is it such a great matter if we collect all their carnal wealth, seeing we spread our 880 spiritual gifts far and wide? 881 882 PETER: What spiritual gifts are you talking about? Up to now I've heard only about worldly 883 things. No doubt you attract men to Christ by preaching his holy word? 884 885 JULIUS: There are people who preach it, and I don't prevent them, as long as they don't in any 886 way question my authority. 887 888 PETER: What then? 889 890 JULIUS: What then? Why are kings given whatever they demand except that individuals 891 attribute to them whatever they have as if it were their gift even though in reality the monarchs 892 have contributed nothing at all? In the same way, everything that's holy is imputed to us 893 popes, even if we've done nothing but snore our life away. But we do more: we give extensive 894 indulgences for very small sums of money; in more serious cases we provide dispensations for 895 less than the maximum price; and wherever we go, we bless everyone, and for free. 896 897 PETER: I don't understand a word of this. But let's go back to our former subject: why does 898 your most holy majesty hate the barbarians so much that you'll move heaven and earth to 899 drive them out of Italy? 900 901 JULIUS: I’ll tell you: there's a superstitious streak runs through the whole lot of these 902 barbarians, especially the French; for I don't get along badly with the Spanish, whether you 903 consider their language or their manners; though in fact I had to drive them out too in order to 904 be free to act in my own independent way. 905 906 PETER: Apart from Christ, do they have any other gods? 907 908 JULIUS: No, the trouble is they worship Christ himself too precisely. You wouldn't believe how 909 seriously these foolish people take certain obsolete, antiquated phrases. 910 911 PETER: Magic formulas? 912 913 JULIUS: You're joking. No, words like "simony," "blasphemy," "sodomy," "poisoning," "fortune-914 telling." 915 916 PETER: Fine words, indeed! 917 918 JULIUS: Just as you abominate them, so do they. 919 920 PETER: Never mind the names; the things themselves are found in your part of the world, 921 aren't they? or are they perhaps common to all Christians? 922 923 JULIUS: I daresay the barbarians have vices of their own, but different from ours; they 924 denounce ours and indulge their own, while we in turn flatter our own and despise theirs. We 925 consider poverty a horrible crime to be avoided by any possible means; they seem to think it's 926 barely Christian to enjoy your own money, even if it was innocently acquired. We hardly dare to 927 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 49 OF 71 speak of drunkenness (though in this particular I might not differ with them very sharply if on 928 other matters we saw eye to eye); but the Germans consider it a minor and rather jolly error, 929 not a crime. They hate usury; we consider money-lenders, of all men, most useful to the 930 church of Christ. They view pederasty as such a disgraceful act that if someone even mentions 931 it, you would think the atmosphere and the sun itself had been polluted; we look at it 932 otherwise. Likewise with simony, a word long since completely antiquated and dropped from 933 the common vocabulary; they still fear the very shadow of it and cling furiously to the 934 outmoded laws made against it-not so with us. And there are many other matters of this sort in 935 which we don't agree with the barbarians. Since we're so different in our manners of life, they 936 have to be kept away from the mysteries of our business, which they will respect more if they 937 don't understand them. For if once they knew all the inner workings of my court, they would 938 spread the story abroad and noise about all the vices they would be quick to uncover. Already 939 they write bitter and malignant letters to their people at home; they cry abroad that this is not 940 the seat of Christ but the cesspool of Satan; they argue over me, asking whether, since I got the 941 papacy as I did and live as I do, I should be considered a pope at all. In this way they threaten 942 my reputation for holiness as well as my papal authority among the common folk, who formerly 943 knew nothing about me, except that I was Christ's vicar and wielded power next to that of God 944 himself. And from these events rise intolerable difficulties for the church of Christ: we sell fewer 945 dispensations and get less for them; our revenues from bishoprics and priesthoods diminish; if 946 we demand anything from the people, it's given only grudgingly; our revenues are off, our 947 business ventures are losing money; people even care less and less about the terrible menace 948 of my thunderbolt. If things once reach the point where they say I'm a scoundrel of a pope who 949 does nothing and only pretends to wield a make-believe thunderbolt, then outright hunger will 950 be staring me in the face. Now if they were at a safe distance (for barbarians aren't very smart), 951 they would worship more zealously, and I could rule over them as I choose by written 952 directives. 953 954 PETER: Things can't be going well with you if the apostolic authority depends only on their 955 ignorance of your sly tricks and your way of life. In my day we wanted people to know all about 956 us, whatever we did, even in our cells; we thought we would become many by becoming well 957 known. But explain this to me, are the princes of the world so religious nowadays, and so 958 respectful of priests, that at the beck of a single one--especially such a one as yourself-they will 959 all at once plunge into war? For in my time we considered princes our most bitter enemies. 960 961 JULIUS: As far as the character of their life is concerned, they are not much like believing 962 Christians. They openly despise us and consider us buffoons, except for a few of the weaker 963 ones who may be a bit afraid of that terrible thunderbolt of excommunication-and even they 964 are more upset by the publicity about it than by the thing itself. There are some princes who 965 hope to share in our wealth or are afraid of it, and for those reasons they may defer to our 966 authority; we've persuaded them, in addition, that some horrible misfortune awaits those who 967 meddle in our priestly business. Almost all of them, having been thoroughly indoctrinated, feel 968 respect for the rituals, especially as we observe them; for ceremonies are given to people as 969 fairy stories are told to children. Meanwhile, the show goes on. Even if they are rascals, we 970 bestow splendid titles on them, calling them "catholic," "your most serene highness," "most 971 illustrious majesty," and "most worshipful monarch"; we also call them all our "beloved sons." 972 Meanwhile in their letters they refer to us as "most holy father," and sometimes abase 973 themselves so far as to kiss our feet; and when some really trivial question comes up, they go 974 through the form of submitting to our authority, which gives them a great name for piety 975 among the masses. We send them consecrated roses, crowns, swords; they in turn send us 976 horses, soldiers, money, and sometimes boys; thus a pair of mules scratches each other, turn 977 and turn about. 978 979 PETER: If that's the sort of men they are, I understand even less how you can incite such 980 powerful kings to terrible wars and to the breaking of all their treaties. 981 982 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 50 OF 71 JULIUS: If you can follow what I tell you, you'll pick up some better than apostolic wisdom. 983 984 PETER: I'll do the best I can. 985 986 JULIUS: The first thing I undertook to do was to acquaint myself with all the peoples and 987 especially their princes-to know their minds, manners, emotions, their wealth and their 988 ambitions, as well as who got along with whom, and who was at odds with whom. All this 989 information was to be used for my own advantage. Then I found it easy to stir up the French 990 against the Venetians because there was an ancient, ingrained hostility between the two 991 parties. I knew the French were eager to expand their power, and the Venetians were occupying 992 some of their towns, so I made the French cause my own. Then the Emperor, though otherwise 993 no great friend of the French, saw he had no other hope of getting back from the Venetians 994 what they held of his (and they held a number of fine cities); so he too made an alliance with 995 the French for the time being. Then when I saw that the French were growing in power more 996 than suited me (for the alliance had succeeded better than I wanted it to), I began to stir up the 997 king of Spain against them. He was not all that strict about keeping his promises, I and he had 998 a great interest in holding down the power of the French because he did not want to be 999 barricaded out of his possessions at Naples. Then I pretended to take the Venetians back into 1000 favor, though I really didn't like or trust them, so that, playing on their grief over loss of the 1001 recent battle, I could rouse them against the French. Next I took the Emperor, whom I'd 1002 recently joined with the French, and detached him from them. A major argument with him was 1003 money, which always works wonders with a man who needs it; I also sent letters and envoys to 1004 renew his ancient hatred of the French, which was always on the point of flaring up, even when 1005 he had no real chance to get at them. I knew the English at this time really hated the French, 1006 who were in close alliance with the Scots. They were a nation, as I well knew, of exceptional 1007 ferocity, eager for war and especially avid for loot rather given to superstition as well, because 1008 far removed from Rome. Finally, they were enjoying at the moment a new liberty, resulting from 1009 the recent death of an old and very severe king. Exuberant and almost riotous at their sudden 1010 release, they could easily be directed into any insane venture lying to hand-which was my 1011 dearest wish. My chances were improved by the temper of the new king, a young man little 1012 more than a boy, newly come to power, sharp, bold, and, like most young men, restless, even 1013 belligerent; he was naturally ambitious, and had been trained up to great deeds. From earliest 1014 youth he was said to have been planning an attack on the French; besides which, his marriage 1015 made him a kinsman of the king of Spain whom at that very moment I was inciting to war. All 1016 these circumstances I turned to the advantage of the church, and by a great number of artfully 1017 composed letters managed to embroil all the princes in the most furious wars conceivable. I did 1018 my best not to leave anyone out, trying to involve the king of Hungary, the king of Portugal, 1019 and the duke of Burgundy, who is the equal of many monarchs. But since they had no 1020 particular interest in the war, I couldn't get them in. I knew that in any case, with those I 1021 already had involved, there would be no peace for anyone else. The combatants, though they 1022 really fought for their own interests, accepted distinguished awards and titles from me, as if the 1023 more death and destruction they visited on Christian folk, the more they might seem to be 1024 defending devotedly the church of God. And so that you may appreciate the full extent of my 1025 luck or skill, I will tell you that though the king of Spain was warring at the time on the Turks, 1026 and had enjoyed hitherto enormous success and taken lots of loot, I got him to abandon that 1027 enterprise and turn all his forces against the French. The Emperor too was bound to France by 1028 many treaties and even more by the enormous assistance he had received from them in 1029 regaining his possessions and cities in Italy. And he had major problems in Italy, because 1030 Padua had deserted to Venice-as well as in Burgundy, where the Gelderlanders had proved 1031 dangerous enemies of his grandson, then duke of Burgundy, in a war he himself had provoked. 1032 And yet I arranged that he should neglect his own affairs in order to do my business. Then, 1033 there is no people among whom papal authority counts for less than the English (that will be 1034 clear to anyone who looks over the life of Thomas archbishop of Canterbury and the ancient 1035 constitutions of the kingdom); yet that nation, though otherwise most impatient of impositions, 1036 almost allowed itself to be skinned alive by me. It's practically a miracle the way I got the 1037 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 51 OF 71 priests, who used to skim off for themselves whatever they could, to bring in taxes to the king, 1038 without ever thinking of the precedent they were setting for future royal exactions-though 1039 indeed the king himself never noticed the example he was setting for action against his own 1040 and his successors' interests whenever the pope in Rome might become impatient with 1041 England. In fact, the young king went at the matter with more energy than I wanted or advised, 1042 even though I thought he was erring in the right direction. But it would be a long story to 1043 explain in detail how artfully I stirred up these various princes to make war on their fellow 1044 Christians, when no previous pope had ever even been able to rouse them against the Turks. 1045 1046 PETER: But it may be that the flames of war that you fanned will spread out of control across 1047 the entire world. 1048 1049 JULIUS: Let them spread, as long as the Roman church retains its dignities and prerogatives. 1050 Actually, I've tried to let the whole weight of the war fall on the barbarians rather than the 1051 Italians; let them fight it out as long as they want, we'll stand by, and perhaps applaud their 1052 idiocy. 1053 1054 PETER: And is this the proper attitude of a pastor, a most holy father, a Vicar of Christ? 1055 1056 JULIUS: Why did they stir up the schism? 1057 1058 PETER: But some evils must simply be endured if the remedy is worse. Besides, if you had 1059 permitted a council, there would have been no occasion for a schism. 1060 1061 JULIUS: Don't be silly! I'd sooner have six hundred wars than one Council. What if they had 1062 removed me from the papacy as a simoniac and a buyer of the papal office, not a true pope at 1063 all? What if they learned the whole truth about my life, and made it public information? 1064 1065 PETER: Even if you were a true pope, you would have done better to resign the office than to 1066 protect your dignity by spreading such evils across the face of the Christian world. It's even 1067 worse when the office has been bestowed on an unworthy person, or not even bestowed but 1068 bought and snatched away by force. And it occurs to me that God in his wisdom may have 1069 created you as a plague for the French in retribution for their having raised you up to be a 1070 plague for the church. 1071 1072 JULIUS: By my triple crown, and by my heroic triumphs, I swear if you stir my anger, you, 1073 even you, will feel the wrath of Julius. 1074 1075 PETER: Oh, madman! So far I have heard nothing but the words of a warlord, not a 1076 churchman but a worldling, not a mere worldling but a pagan, and a scoundrel lower than any 1077 pagan! You boast of having dissolved treaties, stirred up wars, and encouraged the slaughter of 1078 men. That is the power of Satan, not a pope. Anyone who becomes the Vicar of Christ should 1079 try to follow as closely as possible the example provided by Christ. In him the ultimate power 1080 coincided with ultimate goodness; his wisdom was supreme, but of the utmost simplicity. In 1081 you I see an image of power joined with the ultimate in malice and the ultimate in stupidity. If 1082 the devil, that prince of darkness, wanted to send to earth a vicar of hell, whom would he 1083 choose but someone like you? In what way did you ever act like an apostolic person? 1084 1085 JULIUS: What could be more apostolic than strengthening the church of Christ? 1086 1087 PETER: But if the church is the flock of Christian believers held together by the spirit of Christ, 1088 then you seem to me to have subverted the church by inciting the entire world to bloody wars, 1089 while you yourself remained wicked, noisome, and unpunished. 1090 1091 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 52 OF 71 JULIUS: I think the church consists of the holy buildings, the priests, and especially the court 1092 at Rome, myself most of all, who is the head of the church. 1093 1094 PETER: But Christ made us servants and himself the head, unless you think a second head is 1095 needed. But in what way has the church been strengthened? 1096 1097 JULIUS: Now you're getting to the core of the matter, so I'll tell you. That hungry, impoverished 1098 church of yours is now adorned with a thousand impressive ornaments. 1099 1100 PETER: Such as? An earnest faith? 1101 1102 JULIUS: More of your jokes. 1103 1104 PETER: Holy doctrine? 1105 1106 JULIUS: Don't play dumb. 1107 1108 PETER: Contempt for the things of this world? 1109 1110 JULIUS: Let me tell you: real ornaments are what I mean. Those things you've mentioned are 1111 just words. 1112 1113 PETER: What do you mean then? 1114 1115 JULIUS: Regal palaces, spirited horses and fine mules, crowds of servants, well trained troops, 1116 assiduous retainers. 1117 1118 GENIUS: -high-class whores and oily pimps. 1119 1120 JULIUS: -plenty of gold, purple, and so much money in taxes that there's not a king in the 1121 world who wouldn't appear base and poor if his wealth and state were compared with those of 1122 the Roman pontiff. Nobody is so ambitious that he wouldn't confess himself outdone, anybody 1123 so extravagant that he wouldn't condemn his own frugality, nobody so wealthy, not even a 1124 usurer, that he wouldn't envy my riches. These are what I call ornaments; I've protected what I 1125 inherited and added to them. 1126 1127 PETER: But tell me who first of all befouled and burdened with these ornaments of yours the 1128 church that Christ wanted to be supremely pure and unencumbered? 1129 1130 JULIUS: What does that matter? The main thing is that I've got them, I possess them, I enjoy 1131 them. Some people do say that a certain Constantine transferred all the riches of his empire to 1132 pope Sylvester, armor, horses, chariots, helmets, belts, cloaks, guardsmen, swords, gold 1133 crowns (of the very finest gold), armies, machines of war, cities, entire kingdoms. 1134 1135 PETER: Are there any proper records of this magnificent donation? 1136 1137 JULIUS: None, except one codicil mixed in with some old decrees. 1138 1139 PETER: Maybe it's a fable. 1140 1141 JULIUS: I've often suspected as much. What sane man, after all, would bestow such a 1142 magnificent gift even on his own father? But still, it's a very pleasant thing to believe, and when 1143 anyone has tried to question it, I've been able to silence him completely with a timely threat or 1144 two. 1145 1146 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 53 OF 71 PETER: And still I hear nothing from you but worldly concerns. 1147 1148 JULIUS: Evidently you are dreaming on about the old church in which you, with a couple of 1149 hungry bishops, acted out the role of a meager pope afflicted with poverty, labor, danger, and a 1150 thousand other troubles. The new age has changed all that for the better. Nowadays the high 1151 pontiff of Rome is another creature altogether; you were a pope in name only. What if you could 1152 now see all the holy churches decorated with the wealth of kingdoms, the thousands of priests 1153 everywhere, many of them with splendid incomes, all the bishops equal in wealth and military 1154 power to so many kings, all the splendid episcopal palaces? If we were at Rome now, you 1155 couldn't fail to admire all the cardinals in their purple robes, attended by legions of servants, 1156 followed by riders on imperial horses and mules glittering with linen caparisons studded with 1157 gold and gems, shod with gold and silver shoes, like so many blazing suns. Then you might see 1158 the pope himself born aloft on the shoulders of his guards, seated on his golden throne, and 1159 blessing as he passes all the adoring faithful. If you then heard the crash of the cannon, the 1160 applause of the people and their acclamations, if you could see the splendor of the massed 1161 torches, and the highest princes barely allowed to kiss the holy feet, if you saw the supreme 1162 pontiff of Rome placing a golden crown on the head of the Roman emperor who is king of all 1163 kings (that is, if written words carry any weight, though in reality he carries nothing but the 1164 shadow of a great name)-well, I say, if you heard and saw all this, what would you think? 1165 1166 PETER: That I had seen the worst tyranny in the world, the enemy of Christ, and the church's 1167 bane. 1168 1169 JULIUS: You would think very differently if you had seen just one of my triumphs, either the 1170 one that I celebrated at Bologna, or that which I held at Rome after subduing the Venetians, or 1171 that in which, fleeing from Bologna, I returned to Rome; or the latest one, celebrating the defeat 1172 of the French, after almost all hope was gone, at Ravenna. If you could see the long lines of 1173 steeds and stallions, the files of armed soldiers, the gaudy uniforms of the commanders, the 1174 choirs of specially chosen boys, the gleaming insignia, the wagon-loads of booty, the splendor 1175 of the bishops, the magnificence of the cardinals, the trophies, the piles of prize-money, the 1176 cheers of the people and the soldiers echoing up to the heavens, if you could hear the roars 1177 and thunders of applause, the blast of horns, the thunder of trumpets, the roar of cannon, and 1178 then if you could see me carried aloft like a very god, scattering coins among the people, the 1179 center and creator of all this splendor, then you would say the Scipios, Aemilii, and Augusti 1180 were shoddy, parsimonious fellows compared to me. 1181 1182 PETER: Oh, enough of your triumphs, you braggart soldier! You surpass in hatefulness even 1183 those pagans-you who, while claiming to be the most holy father in Christ, have caused 1184 thousands of Christian soldiers to be killed for your own personal advantage, who have created 1185 only new legions of the dead, and who never by words or deeds brought one single soul to 1186 Christ! By the bowels of the Father! Oh you worthy vicar of that Christ who sacrificed himself 1187 for the good of all mankind! You, to preserve your own accursed skin, have driven to their 1188 deaths entire populations! 1189 1190 JULIUS: That's what you say because you are envious of my glory, when you see how puny 1191 your career as a bishop was, when compared with me. 1192 1193 PETER: Have you the audacity, you scoundrel, to compare your glory with mine-though in fact 1194 my glory is the glory of Christ, not my own? First, if you concede that Christ was the best and 1195 true prince of the church, then it was he who gave me the keys of the kingdom, he told me to 1196 care for his flock, he approved of my faith by granting me his authority. What made you pope 1197 was money in the first place, then flattery, and finally fraud-if in fact you should bear the title 1198 of pope at all. I gained thousands of souls for Christ; you drew just as many to death and hell. I 1199 first taught pagan Rome the lesson of Christ; you made yourself master of a kind of pseudo-1200 Christian paganism. I with the mere shadow of my body healed the sick, exorcised the 1201 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 54 OF 71 diabolically afflicted, recalled the dead to life, and wherever I went left my blessing on 1202 everything. What does that have in common with your triumphs? By a single word I could give 1203 over to Satan anyone 1 chose; and what I could do Saphira and her husband found out. Yet 1204 what power I had I exercised for the good of all; you were not only useless to everyone, but you 1205 used what power you had (and where didn't you have it?) to harm people throughout the world. 1206 1207 JULIUS: I'm surprised that when you list your achievements you don't include poverty, wakeful 1208 nights, heavy labor, criminal courts, prisons, chains, abuse, stripes, and last of all the cross. 1209 1210 PETER: You're right, and I'm glad you reminded me; for I've more reason to be proud of those 1211 sufferings than of miracles. It was in the name of these things that Christ told us to rejoice and 1212 be exceeding glad; in the name of these he called us blessed. So Paul, my former fellow-apostle, 1213 when he prides himself on his achievements, has nothing to say of cities captured by armed 1214 force, or legions cut to pieces with cold steel, princes incited to war, or celebrations worthy of 1215 an autocrat; nothing but shipwrecks, chains, lashings, dangers, acts of betrayal. There is the 1216 really apostolic triumph, that is the glory of the Christian leader. Let him boast of those whom 1217 he saved from sin, not of how many thousands of ducats he piled up. Then when we celebrate 1218 our perpetual triumph with Christ, even evildoers will join in our praise; but nobody will fail to 1219 curse you, except perhaps someone just like you or your flatterer. 1220 1221 JULIUS: What you say is unheard-of; I never heard the like. 1222 1223 PETER: I believe it; for when did you ever take time to read the gospels or to study the epistles 1224 of Paul and myself-busy as you were with so many delegations, treaties, schemes, expeditions, 1225 and celebrations? Even the other arts call for a spirit empty of sordid concerns; but the 1226 discipline of Christ requires a heart completely purged of any sort of earthly interest. For a 1227 teacher like the one we revere does not come down from heaven to give men any sort of facile or 1228 vulgar philosophy. Being a Christian is no lazy or comfortable profession. All the pleasures 1229 must be avoided like poison, riches trodden underfoot like dirt, and life itself treated as 1230 valueless; this is the profession of a Christian man. This sort of life, because it seems 1231 unbearable to those who do not act in the spirit of Christ, is easily reduced to a few idle words 1232 and empty ceremonies; and thus to a fraudulent head of Christ men add a fraudulent body. 1233 1234 JULIUS: What's left of me that's any good at all if you take away my money, strip me of my 1235 power, deprive me of my usury, forbid my pleasures, and even destroy my life? 1236 1237 PETER: You might as well say Christ was wretched when he, who had been at the peak of all 1238 things, was made a mockery before men. In poverty and painful labor, in fasts and deprivation 1239 he passed his entire life, and then died the most shameful of deaths. 1240 1241 JULIUS: He may find people to praise his example, but not to follow it, not in these days 1242 anyway. 1243 1244 PETER: But to praise him is really to imitate him. Though Christ doesn't deprive his followers 1245 of all good things, in place of false goods he provides them with true and eternal goods. But he 1246 does not enrich anyone who has not first renounced and rejected all the good things of this 1247 world. As he himself was altogether heavenly, so he wanted his body, that is, the church, to be 1248 exactly like him, pure from the contagions of mundane life. Otherwise, how could anyone be 1249 united with him if he were still contaminated with the filth of earthly existence? But when the 1250 church has got rid of all the pleasures of this world, and, what is more, of all secret hankerings 1251 after them, then Christ will reveal his true riches, exchanging heavenly joys for earthly ones 1252 (too often plentifully mixed with bitter flavors) and in place of lost riches substituting riches of 1253 another, far better, sort. 1254 1255 JULIUS: What are those, may I ask? 1256 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 55 OF 71 1257 PETER: You shouldn't think the gift of prophecy, the gift of wisdom, and the gift of miracles are 1258 like any form of vulgar riches; you shouldn't suppose Christ himself is some common 1259 commodity that you can possess entirely and in him possess everything; and you shouldn't 1260 think that we here live a meager life. The more anyone is afflicted in the world below, the more 1261 delight does he feel in Christ; the poorer he is in the world, the richer in Christ; the more lowly 1262 in the world, the more exalted and honorable in Christ; the less he lives in the world, the more 1263 he lives in Christ. As he wished his entire body to be of the utmost purity, so he placed special 1264 importance on his ministers, that is, the bishops; and among these, the loftier anyone's 1265 position, the more closely he should resemble Christ in being completely free of and 1266 unencumbered by any worldly considerations. Now here, on the other hand, I see one who 1267 wants to be thought close to, and almost on a par with, Christ, yet who is immersed in all the 1268 dirty business he can find, in accumulating money, displays of wealth, possessions of every 1269 sort, wars, treaties, and private vices I won't even try to describe. And though you are utterly 1270 alien to Christ, you abuse the titles of Christ to serve your own pride. Hiding behind him who 1271 despised the rule of the world, you act the tyrant; and though really the enemy of Christ, usurp 1272 for yourself the honor due to him. While blessing others, you are accursed yourself; you open 1273 to others the gates of heaven, yet cannot get yourself admitted; as you consecrate, you are 1274 execrated; you excommunicate when you yourself are out of all communion with the sacred. 1275 What after all is the difference between you and the leader of the Turks, except that you 1276 pretend to use the name of Christ? You have the same sort of mind, you lead the same sordid 1277 lives; you are a worse misfortune for the church even than he. 1278 1279 JULIUS: I wanted to see the church adorned with every sort of good thing. But they say 1280 Aristotle distinguished three sorts of good: goods of fortune, goods of the body, and goods of the 1281 mind. I didn't want to change his order, so I began with goods of fortune, and I might have 1282 worked up to goods of the mind if untimely death hadn't called me away.' 1283 1284 PETER: Untimely you call it, and you seventy years old! In any case, how could you expect to 1285 mingle fire with water? 1286 1287 JULIUS: But if we have to do without earthly shows, the common people won't respect us at 1288 all; as it is, they hate us almost as much as they fear us. Then the whole Christian community 1289 will go to rack and ruin when it can't defend itself against its enemies. 1290 1291 PETER: But if ordinary Christians recognized in you the real gifts of Christ, that is, a holy life, 1292 a sacred teaching, ardent charity, prophetic wisdom, and genuine virtue, they would look up to 1293 you as one purified from the impulses of the world; and the Christian community would 1294 expand even further if its leaders won respect from the unbelievers for the purity of their life, 1295 their contempt for pleasure, wealth, conquest, and death. As things stand, Christianity has 1296 shrunk within narrow bounds indeed, and if you look closely, even within those bounds you 1297 will find many merely nominal Christians. Let me ask you, didn't you ever consider, when you 1298 became supreme pastor of the church, how this church was born, how it grew, what sort of 1299 men gave it strength? Was this accomplished by wars, by chests full of treasure, by cavalry 1300 raids? No: by patience under suffering, by the blood of martyrs and our own, by enduring 1301 prisons and whips. You say the church has grown when all its ministers are burdened with 1302 earthly goods; you say it's been adorned when it's weighed down with worldly possessions and 1303 pleasures; you say it's being defended when the entire world is ripped apart by ferocious wars 1304 for the private gain of the priests; you say it's in flourishing estate when it's drunk on the 1305 pleasures of this world; you call it quiet when, because nobody complains about your riches, 1306 you are free to cultivate your vices; and you grant glorious titles to princes who recognize you 1307 as their teacher in the art of perpetrating shameless robberies and atrocious murders under 1308 the name of "the defense of Christ." 1309 1310 JULIUS: Such things as this I never heard before. 1311 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 56 OF 71 1312 PETER: What did your preachers tell you, then? 1313 1314 JULIUS: I never heard anything from them but fulsome praise. They exercised their fanciest 1315 rhetoric in thundering out my glories, they compared me to Jove wielding his thunderbolt, they 1316 practically deified me, they called me the savior of the world, and a great many other things of 1317 that sort. 1318 1319 PETER: I'm not surprised there was nobody to give you good advice, for you yourself were the 1320 salt that had lost its savor. For that is the special function of the apostles and those that follow 1321 them, to teach others the lesson of Christ, and in the purest form possible. 1322 1323 JULIUS: You're not going to open the gates, then? 1324 1325 PETER: To anyone, rather than a contagious disease like you. As far as you're concerned, we're 1326 all excommunicated anyway. But would you care for a word of practical advice? You have here 1327 a gang of muscle-men; you have a pile of money; you’re a good builder. Go make yourself a new 1328 private paradise; but make it good and strong to keep the demons of hell from dragging you out 1329 of it. 1330 1331 JULIUS: I’ll act in accordance with my own dignity. I’ll take a couple of months to build up my 1332 forces; then we’ll besiege you here and if you don’t surrender, drive you out. For I don’t doubt 1333 to receive shortly, from the wars I started, fresh recruits of sixty thousand souls or more. 1334 1335 PETER: Oh, you hateful disease! Oh, the poor church! But tell me, Genius, for I’d rather talk 1336 with you than with this hideous monster! 1337 1338 GENIUS: What’s your problem? 1339 1340 PETER: Are all the other bishops on earth like this one? 1341 1342 GENIUS: A good number are of this general type; but this one is, as you might say, 1343 outstanding. 1344 1345 PETER: Are you the one who stirred him up to such atrocious crimes? 1346 1347 GENIUS: I did hardly anything; he was so eager in his vices that even with wings I could hardly 1348 have followed him. 1349 1350 PETER: Well, I’m not surprised that we get so few candidates for admission, when monsters 1351 like this are in charge of governing the church. But perhaps the common people may be 1352 curable—or so I conjecture from the fact that because of the mere empty title of pope, they gave 1353 honor to such a filthy piece of garbage as this. 1354 1355 GENIUS: You’ve hit the nail on the head. But my master is getting under way, and has been 1356 shaking his stick at me. So farewell! 1357 1358 Source: Desiderius Erasmus, The Praise of Folly and Other Writings, trans. Robert M. Adams 1359 (New York and London: Norton Critical Edition:, 1989), pp.142-73. 1360 1361 QUESTIONS: 1362 1363 1. Why would a Catholic reformer use a comic satire to criticize the papacy? 1364 2. What is the effect of crafting the satire as a conversation between Julius II and Saint Peter at 1365 the gates of heaven? 1366 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 57 OF 71 3. What might sixteenth-century readers have thought of this? 1367 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 58 OF 71 Hernan Cortés: from Second Letter to Charles V, 1520 1 IN ORDER, most potent Sire, to convey to your Majesty a just conception of the great extent of 2 this noble city of Temixtitlan, and of the many rare and wonderful objects it contains; of the 3 government and dominions of Moctezuma, the sovereign: of the religious rights and customs 4 that prevail, and the order that exists in this as well as the other cities appertaining to his 5 realm: it would require the labor of many accomplished writers, and much time for the 6 completion of the task. I shall not be able to relate an hundredth part of what could be told 7 respecting these matters; but I will endeavor to describe, in the best manner in my power, what 8 I have myself seen; and imperfectly as I may succeed in the attempt, I am fully aware that the 9 account will appear so wonderful as to be deemed scarcely worthy of credit; since even we who 10 have seen these things with our own eyes, are yet so amazed as to be unable to comprehend 11 their reality. But your Majesty may be assured that if there is any fault in my relation, either in 12 regard to the present subject, or to any other matters of which I shall give your Majesty an 13 account, it will arise from too great brevity rather than extravagance or prolixity in the details; 14 and it seems to me but just to my Prince and Sovereign to declare the truth in the clearest 15 manner, without saying anything that would detract from it, or add to it. 16 Before I begin to describe this great city and the others already mentioned, it may be well for 17 the better understanding of the subject to say something of the configuration of Mexico, in 18 which they are situated, it being the principal seat of Moctezuma's power. This Province is in 19 the form of a circle, surrounded on all sides by lofty and rugged mountains; its level surface 20 comprises an area of about seventy leagues in circumference, including two lakes, that 21 overspread nearly the whole valley, being navigated by boats more than fifty leagues round. 22 One of these lakes contains fresh and the other, which is the larger of the two, salt water. On 23 one side of the lakes, in the middle of the valley, a range of highlands divides them from one 24 another, with the exception of a narrow strait which lies between the highlands and the lofty 25 sierras. This strait is a bow-shot wide, and connects the two lakes; and by this means a trade 26 is carried on between the cities and other settlements on the lakes in canoes without the 27 necessity of traveling by land. As the salt lake rises and falls with its tides like the sea, during 28 the time of high water it pours into the other lake with the rapidity of a powerful stream; and 29 on the other hand, when the tide has ebbed, the water runs from the fresh into the salt lake. 30 This great city of Temixtitlan [Mexico] is situated in this salt lake, and from the main land to 31 the denser parts of it, by whichever route one chooses to enter, the distance is two leagues. 32 There are four avenues or entrances to the city, all of which are formed by artificial causeways, 33 two spears' length in width. The city is as large as Seville or Cordova; its streets, I speak of the 34 principal ones, are very wide and straight; some of these, and all the inferior ones, are half land 35 and half water, and are navigated by canoes. All the streets at intervals have openings, through 36 which the water flows, crossing from one street to another; and at these openings, some of 37 which are very wide, there are also very wide bridges, composed of large pieces of timber, of 38 great strength and well put together; on many of these bridges ten horses can go abreast. 39 Foreseeing that if the inhabitants of the city should prove treacherous, they would possess 40 great advantages from the manner in which the city is constructed, since by removing the 41 bridges at the entrances, and abandoning the place, they could leave us to perish by famine 42 without our being able to reach the main land, as soon as I had entered it, I made great haste 43 to build four brigatines, which were soon finished, and were large enough to take ashore three 44 hundred men and the horses, whenever it should become necessary. 45 This city has many public squares, in which are situated the markets and other places for 46 buying and selling. There is one square twice as large as that of the city of Salamanca, 47 surrounded by porticoes, where are daily assembled more than sixty thousand souls, engaged 48 in buying and selling; and where are found all kinds of merchandise that the world affords, 49 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 59 OF 71 embracing the necessaries of life, as for instance articles of food, as well as jewels of gold and 50 silver, lead, brass, copper, tin, precious stones, bones, shells, snails, and feathers. There are 51 also exposed for sale wrought and unwrought stone, bricks burnt and unburnt, timber hewn 52 and unhewn, of different sorts. There is a street for game, where every variety of birds in the 53 country are sold, as fowls, partridges, quails, wild ducks, fly-catchers, widgeons, turtledoves, 54 pigeons, reed-birds, parrots, sparrows, eagles, hawks, owls, and kestrels; they sell likewise the 55 skins of some birds of prey, with their feathers, head, beak, and claws. There are also sold 56 rabbits, hares, deer, and little dogs [i.e., the chihuahua], which are raised for eating. There is 57 also an herb street, where may be obtained all sorts of roots and medicinal herbs that the 58 country affords. There are apothecaries' shops, where prepared medicines, liquids, ointments, 59 and plasters are sold; barbers' shops, where they wash and shave the head; and restaurateurs, 60 that furnish food and drink at a certain price. There is also a class of men like those called in 61 Castile porters, for carrying burdens. Wood and coal are seen in abundance, and braziers of 62 earthenware for burning coals; mats of various kinds for beds, others of a lighter sort for seats, 63 and for halls and bedrooms. 64 There are all kinds of green vegetables, especially onions, leeks, garlic, watercresses, 65 nasturtium, borage, sorrel, artichokes, and golden thistle; fruits also of numerous descriptions, 66 amongst which are cherries and plums, similar to those in Spain; honey and wax from bees, 67 and from the stalks of maize, which are as sweet as the sugar-cane; honey is also extracted 68 from the plant called maguey, which is superior to sweet or new wine; from the same plant they 69 extract sugar and wine, which they also sell. Different kinds of cotton thread of all colors in 70 skeins are exposed for sale in one quarter of the market, which has the appearance of the silk-71 market at Granada, although the former is supplied more abundantly. Painters' colors, as 72 numerous as can be found in Spain, and as fine shades; deerskins dressed and undressed, 73 dyed different colors; earthen-ware of a large size and excellent quality; large and small jars, 74 jugs, pots, bricks, and endless variety of vessels, all made of fine clay, and all or most of them 75 glazed and painted; maize or Indian corn, in the grain and in the form of bread, preferred in the 76 grain for its flavor to that of the other islands and terra-firma; patés of birds and fish; great 77 quantities of fish---fresh, salt, cooked and uncooked; the eggs of hens, geese, and of all the 78 other birds I have mentioned, in great abundance, and cakes made of eggs; finally, everything 79 that can be found throughout the whole country is sold in the markets, comprising articles so 80 numerous that to avoid prolixity, and because their names are not retained in my memory, or 81 are unknown to me, I shall not attempt to enumerate them. 82 Every kind of merchandise is sold in a particular street or quarter assigned to it exclusively, 83 and thus the best order is preserved. They sell everything by number or measure; at least so 84 far we have not observed them to sell anything by weight. There is a building in the great 85 square that is used as an audience house, where ten or twelve persons, who are magistrates, 86 sit and decide all controversies that arise in the market, and order delinquents to be punished. 87 In the same square there are other persons who go constantly about among the people 88 observing what is sold, and the measures used in selling; and they have been seen to break 89 measures that were not true. 90 This great city contains a large number of temples, or houses, for their idols, very handsome 91 edifices, which are situated in the different districts and the suburbs; in the principal ones 92 religious persons of each particular sect are constantly residing, for whose use, besides the 93 houses containing the idols, there are other convenient habitations. All these persons dress in 94 black, and never cut or comb their hair from the time they enter the priesthood until they leave 95 it; and all the sons of the principal inhabitants, both nobles and respectable citizens, are 96 placed in the temples and wear the same dress from the age of seven or eight years until they 97 are taken out to be married; which occurs more frequently with the first-born who inherit 98 estates than with the others. The priests are debarred from female society, nor is any woman 99 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 60 OF 71 permitted to enter the religious houses. They also abstain from eating certain kinds of food, 100 more at some seasons of the year than others. 101 Among these temples there is one which far surpasses all the rest, whose grandeur of 102 architectural details no human tongue is able to describe; for within its precincts, surrounded 103 by a lofty wall, there is room enough for a town of five hundred families. Around the interior of 104 the enclosure there are handsome edifices, containing large halls and corridors, in which the 105 religious persons attached to the temple reside. There are fully forty towers, which are lofty and 106 well built, the largest of which has fifty steps leading to its main body, and is higher than the 107 tower of the principal tower of the church at Seville. The stone and wood of which they are 108 constructed are so well wrought in every part, that nothing could be better done, for the 109 interior of the chapels containing the idols consists of curious imagery, wrought in stone, with 110 plaster ceilings, and wood-work carved in relief, and painted with figures of monsters and other 111 objects. All these towers are the burial places of the nobles, and every chapel in them is 112 dedicated to a particular idol, to which they pay their devotions. 113 Three halls are in this grand temple, which contain the principal idols; these are of wonderful 114 extent and height, and admirable workmanship, adorned with figures sculptured in stone and 115 wood; leading from the halls are chapels with very small doors, to which the light is not 116 admitted, nor are any persons except the priests, and not all of them. In these chapels are the 117 images of idols, although, as I have before said, many of them are also found on the outside; 118 the principal ones, in which the people have greatest faith and confidence, I precipitated from 119 their pedestals, and cast them down the steps of the temple, purifying the chapels in which 120 they had stood, as they were all polluted with human blood, shed ill the sacrifices. In the place 121 of these I put images of Our Lady and the Saints, which excited not a little feeling in 122 Moctezuma and the inhabitants, who at first remonstrated, declaring that if my proceedings 123 were known throughout the country, the people would rise against me; for they believed that 124 their idols bestowed on them all temporal good, and if they permitted them to be ill-treated, 125 they would be angry and without their gifts, and by this means the people would be deprived of 126 the fruits of the earth and perish with famine. I answered, through the interpreters, that they 127 were deceived in expecting any favors from idols, the work of their own hands, formed of 128 unclean things; and that they must learn there was but one God, the universal Lord of all, who 129 had created the heavens and earth, and all things else, and had made them and us; that He 130 was without beginning and immortal, and they were bound to adore and believe Him, and no 131 other creature or thing. 132 I said everything to them I could to divert them from their idolatries, and draw them to a 133 knowledge of God our Lord. Moctezuma replied, the others assenting to what he said, AThat 134 they had already informed me they were not the aborigines of the country, but that their 135 ancestors had emigrated to it many years ago; and they fully believed that after so long an 136 absence from their native land, they might have fallen into some errors; that I having more 137 recently arrived must know better than themselves what they ought to believe; and that if I 138 would instruct them in these matters, and make them understand the true faith, they would 139 follow my directions, as being for the best. Afterwards, Moctezuma and many of the principal 140 citizens remained with me until I had removed the idols, purified the chapels, and placed the 141 images in them, manifesting apparent pleasure; and I forbade them sacrificing human beings 142 to their idols as they had been accustomed to do; because, besides being abhorrent in the sight 143 of God, your sacred Majesty had prohibited it by law, and commanded to put to death whoever 144 should take the life of another. Thus, from that time, they refrained from the practice, and 145 during the whole period of my abode in that city, they were never seen to kill or sacrifice a 146 human being. 147 The figures of the idols in which these people believe surpass in stature a person of more than 148 ordinary size; some of them are composed of a mass of seeds and leguminous plants, such as 149 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 61 OF 71 are used for food, ground and mixed together, and kneaded with the blood of human hearts 150 taken from the breasts of living persons, from which a paste is formed in a sufficient quantity 151 to form large statues. When these are completed they make them offerings of the hearts of 152 other victims, which they sacrifice to them, and besmear their faces with the blood. For 153 everything they have an idol, consecrated by the use of the nations that in ancient times 154 honored the same gods. Thus they have an idol that they petition for victory in war; another for 155 success in their labors; and so for everything in which they seek or desire prosperity, they have 156 their idols, which they honor and serve. 157 This noble city contains many fine and magnificent houses; which may be accounted for from 158 the fact, that all the nobility of the country, who are the vassals of Moctezuma, have houses in 159 the city, in which they reside a certain part of the year; and besides, there are numerous 160 wealthy citizens who also possess fine houses. All these persons, in addition to the large and 161 spacious apartments for ordinary purposes, have others, both upper and lower, that contain 162 conservatories of flowers. Along one of these causeways that lead into the city are laid two 163 pipes, constructed of masonry, each of which is two paces in width, and about five feet in 164 height. An abundant supply of excellent water, forming a volume equal in bulk to the human 165 body, is conveyed by one of these pipes, and distributed about the city, where it is used by the 166 inhabitants for drink and other purposes. The other pipe, in the meantime, is kept empty until 167 the former requires to be cleansed, when the water is let into it and continues to be used till 168 the cleaning is finished. As the water is necessarily carried over bridges on account of the salt 169 water crossing its route, reservoirs resembling canals are constructed on the bridges, through 170 which the fresh water is conveyed. These reservoirs are of the breadth of the body of an ox, and 171 of the same length as the bridges. The whole city is thus served with water, which they carry in 172 canoes through all the streets for sale, taking it from the aqueduct in the following manner: the 173 canoes pass under the bridges on which the reservoirs are placed, when men stationed above 174 fill them with water, for which service they are paid. At all the entrances of the city, and in 175 those parts where the canoes are discharged, that is, where the greatest quantity of provisions 176 is brought in, huts are erected, and persons stationed as guards, who receive a certain sum of 177 everything that enters. I know not whether the sovereign receives this duty or the city, as I 178 have not yet been informed; but I believe that it appertains to the sovereign, as in the markets 179 of other provinces a tax is collected for the benefit of the cacique. 180 In all the markets and public places of this city are seen daily many laborers waiting for some 181 one to hire them. The inhabitants of this city pay a greater regard to style in their mode of 182 dress and politeness of manners than those of the other provinces and cities; since, as the 183 Cacique Moctezuma has his residence in the capital, and all the nobility, his vassals, are in 184 constant habit of meeting there, a general courtesy of demeanor necessarily prevails. But not to 185 be prolix in describing what relates to the affairs of this great city, although it is with difficulty I 186 refrain from proceeding, I will say no more than that the manners of the people, as shown in 187 their intercourse with one another, are marked by as great an attention to the proprieties of life 188 as in Spain, and good order is equally well observed; and considering that they are barbarous 189 people, without the knowledge of God, having no intercourse with civilized nations, these traits 190 of character are worthy of admiration. 191 In regard to the domestic appointments of Moctezuma, and the wonderful grandeur and state 192 that he maintains, there is so much to be told, that I assure your Highness I know not where to 193 begin my relation, so as to be able to finish any part of it. For, as I have already stated, what 194 can be more wonderful than a barbarous monarch, as he is, should have every object found in 195 his dominions imitated in gold, silver, precious stones, and feathers; the gold and silver being 196 wrought so naturally as not to be surpassed by any smith in the world; the stone work 197 executed with such perfection that it is difficult to conceive what instruments could have been 198 used; and the feather work superior to the finest productions in wax or embroidery. The extent 199 of Moctezuma's dominions has not been ascertained, since to whatever point he despatched his 200 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 62 OF 71 messengers, even two hundred leagues from his capital, his commands were obeyed, although 201 some of his provinces were in the midst of countries with which he was at war. But as nearly 202 as I have been able to learn, his territories are equal in extent to Spain itself, for he sent 203 messengers to the inhabitants of a city called Cumatan (requiring them to become subjects of 204 your Majesty), which is sixty leagues beyond that part of Putunchan watered by the river 205 Grijalva, and two hundred and thirty leagues distant from the great city; and I sent some of our 206 people a distance of one hundred and fifty leagues in the same direction. 207 All the principle chiefs of these provinces, especially those in the vicinity of the capital, reside, 208 as I have already stated, the greater part of the year in that great city, and all or most of them 209 have their oldest sons in the service of Moctezuma. There are fortified places in all the 210 provinces, garrisoned with his own men, where are also stationed his governors and collectors 211 of the rents and tribute, rendered him by every province; and an account is kept of what each 212 is obliged to pay, as they have characters and figures made on paper that are used for this 213 purpose. Each province renders a tribute of its own peculiar productions, so that the sovereign 214 receives a great variety of articles from different quarters. No prince was ever more feared by 215 his subjects, both in his presence and absence. He possessed out of the city as well as within 216 numerous villas, each of which had its peculiar sources of amusement, and all were 217 constructed in the best possible manner for the use of a great prince and lord. Within the city 218 his palaces were so wonderful that it is hardly possible to describe their beauty and extent; I 219 can only say that in Spain there is nothing equal to them. 220 There was one palace somewhat inferior to the rest, attached to which was a beautiful garden 221 with balconies extending over it, supported by marble columns, and having a floor formed of 222 jasper elegantly inlaid. There were apartments in this palace sufficient to lodge two princes of 223 the highest rank with their retinues. There were likewise belonging to it ten pools of water, in 224 which were kept the different species of water birds found in this country, of which there is a 225 great variety, all of which are domesticated; for the sea birds there were pools of salt water, and 226 for the river birds, of fresh water. The water is let off at certain times to keep it pure, and is 227 replenished by means of pipes. Each specie of bird is supplied with the food natural to it, 228 which it feeds upon when wild. Thus fish is given to the birds that usually eat it; worms, maize, 229 and the finer seeds, to such as prefer them. And I assure your Highness, that to the birds 230 accustomed to eat fish there is given the enormous quantity of ten arrobas every day, taken in 231 the salt lake. The emperor has three hundred men whose sole employment is to take care of 232 these birds; and there are others whose only business is to attend to the birds that are in bad 233 health. 234 Over the polls for the birds there are corridors and galleries, to which Moctezuma resorts, and 235 from which he can look out and amuse himself with the sight of them. There is an apartment 236 in the same palace in which are men, women and children, whose faces, bodies, hair, 237 eyebrows, and eyelashes are white from their birth. The emperor has another very beautiful 238 palace, with a large court-yard, paved with handsome flags, in the style of a chess-board. There 239 are also cages, about nine feet in height and six paces square, each of which was half covered 240 with a roof of tiles, and the other half had over it a wooden grate, skillfully made. Every cage 241 contained a bird of prey, of all the species found in Spain, from the kestrel to the eagle, and 242 many unknown there. There was a great number of each kind; and in the covered part of the 243 cages there was a perch, and another on the outside of the grating, the former of which the 244 birds used in the night time, and when it rained; and the other enabled them to enjoy the sun 245 and air. To all these birds fowls were daily given for food, and nothing else. There were in the 246 same palace several large halls on the ground floor, filled with immense cages built of heavy 247 pieces of timber, well put together, in all or most of which were kept lions, tigers, wolves, foxes, 248 and a variety of animals of the cat kind, in great numbers, which were fed also on fowls. The 249 care of these animals and birds was assigned to three hundred men. There was another palace 250 that contained a number of men and women of monstrous size, and also dwarfs, and crooked 251 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 63 OF 71 and ill-formed persons, each of which had their separate apartments. These also had their 252 respective keepers. As to the other remarkable things that the emperor had in his city for his 253 amusement, I can only say that they were numerous and of various kinds. 254 He was served in the following manner: Every day as soon as it was light, six hundred nobles 255 and men of rank were in attendance at the palace, who either sat, or walked about the halls 256 and galleries, and passed their time in conversation, but without entering the apartment where 257 his person was. The servants and attendants of these nobles remained in the court-yards, of 258 which there were two or three of great extent, and in the adjoining street, which was also very 259 spacious. They all remained in attendance from morning until night; and when his meals were 260 served, the nobles were likewise served with equal profusion, and their servants and secretaries 261 also had their allowance. Daily his larder and wine-cellar were open to all who wished to eat or 262 drink. The meals were served by three or four hundred youths, who brought on an infinite 263 variety of dishes; indeed, whenever he dined or supped, the table was loaded with every kind of 264 flesh, fish, fruits, and vegetables that the country produced. As the climate is cold, they put a 265 chafing-dish with live coals under every plate and dish, to keep them warm. The meals were 266 served in a large hall, in which Moctezuma was accustomed to eat, and the dishes quite filled 267 the room, which was covered with mats and kept very clean. He sat on a small cushion 268 curiously wrought of leather. During the meals there were present, at a little distance from 269 him, five or six elderly caciques, to whom he presented some of the food. And there was 270 constantly in attendance one of the servants, who arranged and handed the dishes, and who 271 received from others whatever was wanted for the supply of the table. 272 Both at the beginning and end of every meal, they furnished water for the hands; and the 273 napkins used on these occasions were never used a second time; this was the case also with 274 the plates and dishes, which were not brought again, but new ones in place of them; it was the 275 same also with the chafing-dishes. He is also dressed every day in four different suits, entirely 276 new, which he never wears a second time. None of the caciques who enter his palace have their 277 feet covered, and when those for whom he sends enters his presence, they incline their heads 278 and look down, bending their bodies; and when they address him, they do not look him in the 279 face; this arises from excessive modesty and reverence. I am satisfied that it proceeds from 280 respect, since certain caciques reproved the Spaniards for their boldness in addressing me, 281 saying that it showed a want of becoming deference. Whenever Moctezuma appeared in public, 282 which is seldom the case, all those who accompanied him, or whom he accidentally met in the 283 streets, turned away without looking towards him, and others prostrated themselves until he 284 had passed. One of the nobles always preceded him on these occasions, carrying three slender 285 rods erect, which I suppose was to give notice of the approach of his person. And when they 286 descended from the litters, he took one of them in his hand, and held it until he reached the 287 place where he was going. So many and various were the ceremonies and customs observed by 288 those in the service of Moctezuma, that more space than I can spare would be required for the 289 details, as well as a better memory than I have to recollect them; since no sultan or other 290 infidel lord, of whom any knowledge now exists; ever had so much ceremonial in his court. 291 Source. From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University 292 Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 317-326. 293 Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Cal. State Fullerton. The text has been modernized by Prof. 294 Arkenberg. 295 This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of 296 public domain and copy-permitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and 297 World history. 298 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 64 OF 71 Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. 299 Permission is granted for electronic copying, distribution in print form for educational purposes 300 and personal use. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is 301 granted for commercial use of the Sourcebook. 302 © Paul Halsall June1998 303 halsall@murray.fordham.edu 304 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 65 OF 71 MOCTEZUMA'S GREETING TO HERNAN CORTES 1 Cosmology affects human actions. This is most clearly seen when people are confronted by 2 something totally unexpected. When European conquerors sailed to the New World, native 3 peoples had no way to understand the newcomers except by reference to their own beliefs and 4 traditions. In this reading, we can see the response of King Moctezuma to the European 5 Hernan Cortez in 1519 as the latter entered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. As Moctezuma 6 would soon discover, he had misjudged his visitor's identity and intentions. 7 Points to Ponder: 8 --How does King Moctezuma react to the arrival of the Europeans? Does he show fear? 9 --Does he act superior to them, or does he address them as equals, or does he subordinate 10 himself to them? 11 --How does he seem to explain the appearance of these strangers? 12 --What ideas explain the behavior of the King? 13 Hernan Cortes: Letter from Mexico 14 Close to the city there is a wooden bridge ten paces wide across a breach in the causeway to 15 allow the water to flow, as it rises and falls. After we had crossed this bridge, Moctezuma came 16 to greet us and with him some two hundred lords, all barefoot and dressed in a different 17 costume, but also very rich in their way and more so than the others. They came in two 18 columns, pressed very close to the walls of the street, which is very wide and beautiful and so 19 straight that you can see from one end to the other. It is two-thirds of a league long and has on 20 both sides very good and big houses, both dwellings and temples. 21 Moctezuma came down the middle of this street with two chiefs, one on his right hand and the 22 other on his left. When we met I dismounted and stepped forward to embrace him, but the two 23 lords who were with him stopped me with their hands so that I should not touch him; and they 24 likewise all performed the ceremony of kissing the earth. When at last I came to speak to 25 Moctezuma himself I took off a necklace of pearls and cut glass that I was wearing and placed 26 it round his neck; after we had walked a little way up the street a servant of his came with two 27 necklaces, wrapped in a cloth, made from red snails' shells, which they hold in great esteem; 28 and from each necklace hung eight shrimps of refined gold almost a span in length. And after 29 he had given me these things he sat on another throne which they placed there next to the one 30 on which I was sitting, and addressed me in he following way: 31 "For a long time we have known from the writings of our ancestors that neither I [Moctezuma], 32 nor any of those who dwell in this land, are natives of it, but foreigners who came from very 33 distant parts; and likewise we know that a chieftain, of whom they were all vassals, brought 34 our people to this region. And he returned to his native land and after many years came again, 35 by which time all those who had remained were married to native women and had built villages 36 and raised children. And when he wished to lead them away again they would not go nor even 37 admit him as their chief, and so he departed. And we have always held that those who 38 descended from him would come and conquer this land and take us as their vassals. So 39 because of the place from which you claim to come, namely, from where the sun rises, and the 40 things you tell us of the great lord or king who sent you here, we believe and are certain that he 41 is our natural lord, especially as you say that he has known of us for some time. So be assured 42 that we shall obey you and hold you as our lord in place of that great sovereign of whom you 43 speak; and in this there shall be no offense or betrayal whatsoever. I know full well of all that 44 has happened to you from Puntunchan to here, and I also know how those of Cempoal and 45 Tascalteca have told you much evil of me; believe only what you see with your eyes, for those 46 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 66 OF 71 are my enemies, and some were my vassals, and have rebelled against me at your coming and 47 said those things to gain favor with you. I also know that they have told you the walls of my 48 houses are, made of gold, and that the floor mats in my rooms and other things in my 49 household are likewise of gold, and that I was, and claimed to be, a god; and many other things 50 besides. The houses as you see are of stone and lime and clay." 51 Then he raised his clothes and showed me his body, saying, as he grasped his arms and trunk 52 with his hands, "See that I am of flesh and blood like you and all other men, and I am mortal 53 and substantial. See how they have lied to you? It is true that I have some pieces of gold left to 54 me by my ancestors; anything I might have shall be given to you whenever you ask. Now I shall 55 go to other houses where I live, but here you shall be provided with all that you and your 56 people require, and you shall receive no hurt, for you are in your own land and your own 57 house." 58 Source: Hernan Cortes, Letters from Mexico , trans. Anthony Pagden (New Haven: Yale 59 University Press, 1986). 60 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 67 OF 71 Pedro de Cieza de Léon: Chronicles of the Incas, 1540 1 Another view of the Incas, from a conquistador. It provides quite a lot of information about the 2 Incan economy--a redistributive typical of all early civilizations. 3 It is told for a fact of the rulers of this kingdom that in the days of their rule they had their 4 representatives in the capitals of all the provinces, for in all these places there were larger and 5 finer lodgings than in most of the other cities of this great kingdom, and many storehouses. 6 They served as the head of the provinces or regions, and from every so many leagues around 7 the tributes were brought to one of these capitals, and from so many others, to another. This 8 was so well-organized that there was not a village that did not know where it was to send its 9 tribute. In all these capitals the Incas had temples of the Sun, mints, and many silversmiths 10 who did nothing but work rich pieces of gold or fair vessels of silver; large garrisons were 11 stationed there, and a steward who was in command of them all, to whom an accounting of 12 everything that was brought in was made, and who, in turn, had to give one of all that was 13 issued. ...The tribute paid by each of these provinces, whether gold, silver, clothing, arms and 14 all else they gave, was entered in the accounts of those who kept the quipus and did everything 15 ordered by the governor in the matter of finding the soldiers or supplying whomever the Inca 16 ordered, or making delivery to Cuzco; but when they came from the city of Cuzco to go over the 17 accounts, or they were ordered to go to Cuzco to give an accounting, the accountants 18 themselves gave it by the quipus, or went to give it where there could be no fraud, but 19 everything had to come out right. Few years went by in which an accounting was not made.... 20 At the beginning of the new year the rulers of each village came to Cuzco, bringing their quipus, 21 which told how many births there had been during the year, and how many deaths. In this way 22 the Inca and the governors knew which of the Indians were poor, the women who had been 23 widowed, whether they were able to pay their taxes, and how many men they could count on in 24 the event of war, and many other things they considered highly important. The Incas took care 25 to see that justice was meted out, so much so that nobody ventured to commit a felony or theft. 26 This was to deal with thieves, rapists, or conspirators against the Inca. 27 As this kingdom was so vast, in each of the many provinces there were many storehouses filled 28 with supplies and other needful things; thus, in times of war, wherever the armies went they 29 drew upon the contents of these storehouses, without ever touching the supplies of their 30 confederates or laying a finger on what they had in their settlements....Then the storehouses 31 were filled up once more with the tributes paid the Inca. If there came a lean year, the 32 storehouses were opened and the provinces were lent what they needed in the way of supplies; 33 then, in a year of abundance, they paid back all they had received. No one who was lazy or 34 tried to live by the work of others was tolerated; everyone had to work. Thus on certain days 35 each lord went to his lands and took the plow in hand and cultivated the earth, and did other 36 things. Even the Incas themselves did this to set an example. And under their system there 37 was none such in all the kingdom, for, if he had his health, he worked and lacked for nothing; 38 and if he was ill, he received what he needed from the storehouses. And no rich man could 39 deck himself out in more finery than the poor, or wear different clothing, except the rulers and 40 the headmen, who, to maintain their dignity, were allowed great freedom and privilege. 41 Source From: Pedro Cieza de Léon, The Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru, Clements R. 42 Markham, trans. & ed., (London: Hakluyt Society, 1883), pp. 36-50, passim. 43 Scanned by: J. S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton. Prof. Arkenberg has 44 modernized the text. 45 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 68 OF 71 This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of 46 public domain and copy-permitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and 47 World history. 48 Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. 49 Permission is granted for electronic copying, distribution in print form for educational purposes 50 and personal use. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is 51 granted for commercial use of the Sourcebook. 52 © Paul Halsall, July 1998 53 halsall@murray.fordham.edu 54 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 69 OF 71 Bartolome de las Casas: A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies [1542] 1 [PREFACE] 2 The Americas were discovered in 1492, and the first Christian settlements established by the 3 Spanish the following year. It is accordingly forty-nine years now since Spaniards began 4 arriving in numbers in this part of the world. They first settled the large and fertile island of 5 Hispaniola, which boasts six hundred leagues of coastline and is surrounded by a great many 6 other large islands, all of them, as I saw for myself, with as high a native population as 7 anywhere on earth. Of the coast of the mainland, which, at its nearest point, is a little over two 8 hundred and fifty leagues from Hispaniola, more than ten thousand leagues had been explored 9 by 1541, and more are being discovered every day. This coastline, too, was swarming with 10 people and it would seem, if we are to judge by those areas so far explored, that the Almighty 11 selected this part of the world as home to the greater part of the human race. 12 God made all the peoples of this area, many and varied as they are, as open and as innocent as 13 can be imagined. The simplest people in the world -unassuming, long-suffering, unassertive, 14 and submissive -they are without malice or guile, and are utterly faithful and obedient both to 15 their own native lords and to the Spaniards in whose service they now find themselves. Never 16 quarrelsome or belligerent or boisterous, they harbour no grudges and do not seek to settle old 17 scores; indeed, the notions of revenge, rancour, and hatred are quite foreign to them. At the 18 same time, they are among the least robust of human beings: their delicate constitutions make 19 them unable to withstand hard work or suffering and render them liable to succumb to almost 20 any illness, no matter how mild. Even the common people are no tougher than princes or than 21 other Europeans born with a silver spoon in their mouths and who spend their lives shielded 22 from the rigours of the outside world. They are also among the poorest people on the face of the 23 earth; they own next to nothing and have no urge to acquire material possessions. As a result 24 they are neither ambitious nor greedy, and are totally uninterested in worldly power. Their diet 25 is every bit as poor and as monotonous, in quantity and in kind, as that enjoyed by the Desert 26 Fathers. Most of them go naked, save for a loincloth to cover their modesty; at best they may 27 wrap themselves in a piece of cotton material a yard or two square. Most sleep on matting, 28 although a few possess a kind of hanging net, known in the language of Hispaniola as a 29 hammock. They are innocent and pure in mind and have a lively intelligence, all of which 30 makes them particularly receptive to learning and understanding the truths of our Catholic 31 faith and to being instructed in virtue; indeed, God has invested them with fewer impediments 32 in this regard than any other people on earth. Once they begin to learn of the Christian faith 33 they become so keen to know more, to receive the Sacraments, and to worship God, that the 34 missionaries who instruct them do truly have to be men of exceptional patience and 35 forbearance; and over the years I have time and again met Spanish laymen who have been so 36 struck by the natural goodness that shines through these people that they frequently can be 37 heard to exclaim: 'These would be the most blessed people on earth if only they were given the 38 chance to convert to Christianity.' 39 It was upon these gentle lambs, imbued by the Creator with all the qualities we have 40 mentioned, that from the very first day they clapped eyes on them the Spanish fell like ravening 41 wolves upon the fold, or like tigers and savage lions who have not eaten meat for days. The 42 pattern established at the outset has remained unchanged to this day, and the Spaniards still 43 do nothing save tear the natives to shreds, murder them and inflict upon them untold misery, 44 suffering and distress, tormenting, harrying and persecuting them mercilessly. We shall in due 45 course describe some of the many ingenious methods of torture they have invented and refined 46 for this purpose, but one can get some idea of the effectiveness of their methods from the 47 figures alone. When the Spanish first journeyed there, the indigenous population of the island 48 of Hispaniola stood at some three million; today only two hundred survive. The island of Cuba, 49 which extends for a distance almost as great as that separating Valladolid from Rome, is now 50 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 70 OF 71 to all intents and purposes uninhabited;" and two other large, beautiful and fertile islands, 51 Puerto Rico and Jamaica, have been similarly devastated. Not a living soul remains today on 52 any of the islands of the Bahamas, which lie to the north of Hispaniola and Cuba, even though 53 every single one of the sixty or so islands in the group, as well as those known as the Isles of 54 Giants and others in the area, both large and small, is more fertile and more beautiful than the 55 Royal Gardens in Seville and the climate is as healthy as anywhere on earth. The native 56 population, which once numbered some five hundred thousand, was wiped out by forcible 57 expatriation to the island of Hispaniola, a policy adopted by the Spaniards in an endeavour to 58 make up losses among the indigenous population of that island. One God-fearing individual 59 was moved to mount an expedition to seek out those who had escaped the Spanish trawl and 60 were still living in the Bahamas and to save their souls by converting them to Christianity, but, 61 by the end of a search lasting three whole years, they had found only the eleven survivors I saw 62 with my own eyes. A further thirty or so islands in the region of Puerto Rico are also now 63 uninhabited and left to go to rack and ruin as a direct result of the same practices. All these 64 islands, which together must run to over two thousand leagues, are now abandoned and 65 desolate. 66 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ULAANBAATAR PRIMARY SOURCES WORLD HISTORY 2010 /2011 GRADE 11 BEHARRY 2010 /2011 EUROPE-ISLAM-MONGOL BEHARRY ASU: ULAANBAATAR GRADE 11 PRIMARY SOURCE: PAGE 71 OF 71 Reign of Philip II 1 The following are two documents relating to the reign of Philip II of Spain (1527-1598). He was 2 perhaps the most powerful monarch in Europe, controlling both vast territories in Europe and 3 the Americas. The two documents which follow are from anonymous sources. 4 The Gold of the Indies (1559) 5 From New Spain are obtained gold and silver, cochineal [little insects like flies], from which 6 crimson dye is made, leather, cotton, sugar and other things; but from Peru nothing is 7 obtained except minerals. The fifth part of all that is produced goes to the king, but since the 8 gold and silver is brought to Spain and he has a tenth part of that which goes to the mint and 9 is refined and coined, he eventually gets one-fourth of the whole sum, which fourth does not 10 exceed in all four or five hundred thousand ducats, although it is reckoned not alone at 11 millions, but at millions of pounds. Nor is it likely that it will long remain at this figure, 12 because great quantities of gold and silver are no longer found upon the surface of the earth, 13 as they have been in past years; and to penetrate into the bowels of the earth requires greater 14 effort, skill and outlay, and the Spaniards are not willing to do the work themselves, and the 15 natives cannot be forced to do so, because the Emperor has freed them from all obligation of 16 service as soon as they accept the Christian religion. Wherefore it is necessary to acquire negro 17 slaves, who are brought from the coasts of Africa, both within and without the Straits, and 18 these are selling dearer every day, because on account of their natural lack of strength and the 19 change of climate, added to the lack of discretion upon the part of their masters in making 20 them work too hard and giving them too little to eat, they fall sick and the greater part of them 21 die. 22 Revenues of the King of Spain (1559) 23 From these his realms his majesty receives every year an income of five millions of gold in 24 times of peace: one and one-half millions from Spain; a half-million from the Indies; one from 25 Naples and Sicily, and another from Flanders and the Low Countries. But his expenses are six 26 millions, and this excess is covered by extraordinary taxes according to his pleasure, whence it 27 appears that he could control only a small amount of money for special undertakings, since he 28 consumes for his ordinary needs everything that he derives from his realms. But looked at from 29 another point of view, the Emperor, his father, although he had the same burdens, was 30 nevertheless able to carry on extensive wars and enterprises in Italy and outside of Italy, both 31 by land and sea, and the same king was able in these later years to maintain great armies in 32 Flanders, in Piedmont, in Lombardy and in the kingdom, and many soldiers in Africa against 33 the Turk. So that we may calculate that he spent more than ten millions of gold; wherefore it 34 may be put down as a fact that although expenses may exceed income, yet a way is not 35 wanting to great princes, whereby they may find large sums of money in times of great need, 36 particularly in the case of the king of Spain, not so much on account of the mines which are 37 found in Spain and the Indies, of which the Spanish nation, according to its custom, makes no 38 great account, as from the fact that he has so many 39 From: Translations and Reprints, Vol. 3 No. 3, E. P. Cheyney, ed. Reprinted in Eugen Weber, 40 ed., The Western Tradition, Vol. II: From the Renaissance to the Present, Fifth Ed., (Lexington, 41 MA and Toronto; D. C. Heath, 1995) pp. 102-103. 42