Data Collection

Instruments of data Collection : Instruments of data Collection Prof.C.Sasikala Dept.of Library and Information science Andhra university

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Research Terminology : Research Terminology 'research methodology' The study of research methods A singular that does not admit of a plural 'research technique' A specific means, approach or tool-and-its-use, whereby data is gathered and analysed, and inferences are drawn 'research method' The manner in which a particular project is undertaken It comprises one or more research techniques

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Secondary Data : Secondary Data Secondary data – data someone else has collected This is what you were looking for in your assignment.

Secondary Data – Examples of Sources : Secondary Data – Examples of Sources There are many sources of data and most people tend to underestimate the number of sources and the amount of data within each of these sources. Sources can be classified as: paper-based sources – books, journals, periodicals, abstracts, indexes, directories, research reports, conference papers, market reports, annual reports, internal records of organisations, newspapers and magazines electronic sources– CD-ROMs, on-line databases, Internet, videos and broadcasts. The main sources of qualitative and quantitative secondary data include the follwing: Official or government sources.

Secondary Data – Examples of Sources : Secondary Data – Examples of Sources Unofficial or general business sources include publications of trade associations trade and other journals private research publishers stock broking firms large company market reports local authorities professional bodies academic institutions. International sources.

Secondary Data – Limitations : Secondary Data – Limitations When was it collected? For how long? May be out of date for what you want to analyze. May not have been collected long enough for detecting trends. E.g. Have new anticorruption laws impacted Russia’s government accountability ratings? Is the data set complete? There may be missing information on some observations Unless such missing information is caught and corrected for, analysis will be biased.

Secondary Data – Limitations : Secondary Data – Limitations Are there confounding problems? Sample selection bias? Source choice bias? In time series, did some observations drop out over time? Are the data consistent/reliable? Did variables drop out over time? Did variables change in definition over time? E.g. number of years of education versus highest degree obtained

Secondary Data – Limitations : Secondary Data – Limitations Is the information exactly what you need? In some cases, may have to use “proxy variables” – variables that may approximate something you really wanted to measure. Are they reliable? Is there correlation to what you actually want to measure?

Secondary Data – Advantages : Secondary Data – Advantages No need to reinvent the wheel. If someone has already found the data, take advantage of it.

Secondary Data – Advantages : Secondary Data – Advantages It will save you money. Even if you have to pay for access, often it is cheaper in terms of money than collecting your own data. (more on this later.) It will save you time. Primary data collection is very time consuming. (More on this later, too!) It may be very accurate. When especially a government agency has collected the data, incredible amounts of time and money went into it. It’s probably highly accurate It has great exploratory value Exploring research questions and formulating hypothesis to test.

Primary Data : Primary Data Primary data – data you collect through Surveys Focus groups Questionnaires Personal interviews Experiments and observational study

Primary Data - Limitations : Primary Data - Limitations Do you have the time and money for: Designing your collection instrument? Selecting your population or sample? Pretesting/piloting the instrument to work out sources of bias? Administration of the instrument? Entry/collation of data?

Primary Data - Limitations : Primary Data - Limitations Uniqueness May not be able to compare to other populations Researcher error Sample bias Other confounding factors

Why do we needresearch data collection tools? : Why do we needresearch data collection tools? To access data To collect the data in an orderly way To be able to communicate to respondents To support the research process To be able to verify and validate information

At which stage of the research proceduredoes one decide on which tool (s) to use andwhen does one implement the tools? : At which stage of the research proceduredoes one decide on which tool (s) to use andwhen does one implement the tools? Selecting tools after – Methodology has been decided on – Kinds of data needed have been established -- Data sources have been established Implementing tools – In the research process at the point (s) in the research plan indicated

What is a research data collection tool? : What is a research data collection tool? Data collection tools are instruments used to collect data about a problem or problem foci identified. You can either observe what happens (using any of your senses to collect data), you can ask other people, or you can review documents.

Data collection choice : Data collection choice What you must ask yourself: Will the data answer my research question? To answer that You much first decide what your research question is Then you need to decide what data/variables are needed to scientifically answer the question

Data collection choice : Data collection choice If that data exist in secondary form, then use them to the extent you can, keeping in mind limitations. But if it does not, and you are able to fund primary collection, then it is the method of choice.

Choosing an instrument : Choosing an instrument Appropriateness Validity Responsiveness Precision Interpretability Acceptability Reliability

Choosing an instrument : Choosing an instrument Appropriateness Is the content of the instrument appropriate to the questions which the study is intended to address? Reliability Does the instrument produce results that are reproducible and internally consistent? Validity Does the instrument measure what it claims to measure? Responsiveness Does the instrument detect changes over time that matter to patients?

Choosing an instrument (2) : Choosing an instrument (2) Precision How precise are the scores of the instrument? Interpretability How interpretable are the scores of the instrument? Acceptability Is the instrument acceptable to patients? Feasibility Is the instrument easy to administer and process?

Slide 27 : There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include: questionnaires interviews focus group interviews observation case-studies diaries critical incidents portfolios. The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature (usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or where you can make counts of words used)

Questionnaires : Questionnaires Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced. Advantages: Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone survey. Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed. Can cover a large number of people or organisations. Wide geographic coverage. Relatively cheap. No prior arrangements are needed. Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent. Respondent can consider responses. Possible anonymity of respondent. No interviewer bias.

Slide 29 : Disadvantages: Design problems. Questions have to be relatively simple. Historically low response rate (although inducements may help). Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned. Require a return deadline. Several reminders may be required. Assumes no literacy problems. No control over who completes it. Not possible to give assistance if required. Problems with incomplete questionnaires. Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other. Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too personal.

Design of postal questionnaires : Design of postal questionnaires Theme and covering letter Instructions for completion Appearance Length Order Thank you

Slide 31 : Questions Keep the questions short, simple and to the point; avoid all unnecessary words. Use words and phrases that are unambiguous and familiar to the respondent. For example, ‘dinner’ has a number of different interpretations; use an alternative expression such as ‘evening meal’. Only ask questions that the respondent can answer. Hypothetical questions should be avoided. Avoid calculations and questions that require a lot of memory work, for example, ‘How many people stayed in your hotel last year?’ Avoid loaded or leading questions that imply a certain answer. For example, by mentioning one particular item in the question, ‘Do you agree that Colgate toothpaste is the best toothpaste?’

Slide 32 : Vacuous words or phrases should be avoided. ‘Generally’, ‘usually’, or ‘normally’ are imprecise terms with various meanings. They should be replaced with quantitative statements, for example, ‘at least once a week’. Questions should only address a single issue. For example, questions like: ‘Do you take annual holidays to Spain?’ should be broken down into two discreet stages, firstly find out if the respondent takes an annual holiday, and then secondly find out if they go to Spain. Do not ask two questions in one by using ‘and’. For example, ‘Did you watch television last night and read a newspaper?’ Avoid double negatives. For example, ‘Is it not true that you did not read a newspaper yesterday?’ Respondents may tackle a double negative by switching both negatives and then assuming that the same answer applies. This is not necessarily valid. State units required but do not aim for too high a degree of accuracy. For instance, use an interval rather than an exact figure: ‘How much did you earn last year?’ Less than £10,000 [   ] £10,000 but less than £20,000 [   ] Avoid emotive or embarrassing words – usually connected with race, religion, politics, sex, money.

Types of questions : Types of questions Closed questions A question is asked and then a number of possible answers are provided for the respondent. The respondent selects the answer which is appropriate. Closed questions are particularly useful in obtaining factual information: Sex:    Male [   ] Female [   ] Did you watch television last night?     Yes [   ] No [   ] Some ‘Yes/No’ questions have a third category ‘Do not know’. Experience shows that as long as this alternative is not mentioned people will make a choice. Also the phrase ‘Do not know’ is ambiguous: Do you agree with the introduction of the Automation? Yes [   ] No [   ] Do not know [   ]

Types of questions : Types of questions What was your main way of travelling to the hotel? Tick one box only. Car[   ] Coach[   ] Motor bike[   ] Train[   ] Other means, please specify With such lists you should always include an ‘other’ category, because not all possible responses might have been included in the list of answers. Sometimes the respondent can select more than one from the list. However, this makes analysis difficult:

Types of questions : Types of questions Attitude questions Frequently questions are asked to find out the respondents’ opinions or attitudes to a given situation. A Likert scale provides a battery of attitude statements. The respondent then says how much they agree or disagree with each one: Read the following statements and then indicate by a tick whether you strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the statement. My visit has been good value for money  Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree     There are many variations on this type of question. One variation is to have a ‘middle statement’, for example, ‘Neither agree nor disagree’. However, many respondents take this as the easy option. Only having four statements, as above, forces the respondent into making a positive or negative choice. Another variation is to rank the various attitude statements, however, this can cause analysis problems:

Type of Questions : Type of Questions Which of these characteristics do you like about your job? Indicate the best three in order, with the best being number 1. Varied work[   ] Good salary[   ] Opportunities for promotion[   ] Good working conditions[   ] High amount of responsibility[   ] Friendly colleagues[   ]

Slide 37 : A semantic differential scale attempts to see how strongly an attitude is held by the respondent. With these scales double-ended terms are given to the respondents who are asked to indicate where their attitude lies on the scale between the terms. The response can be indicated by putting a cross in a particular position or circling a number: Work is: (circle the appropriate number) Difficult 1   2   3   4   5   6   7Easy Useless1   2   3   4   5   6   7UsefulI interesting1   2   3   4   5   6   7Boring For summary and analysis purposes, a ‘score’ of 1 to 7 may be allocated to the seven points of the scale, thus quantifying the various degrees of opinion expressed.

Slide 38 : Open questions An open question such as ‘What are the essential skills a manager should possess?’ should be used as an adjunct to the main theme of the questionnaire and could allow the respondent to elaborate upon an earlier more specific question. Open questions inserted at the end of major sections, or at the end of the questionnaire, can act as safety valves, and possibly offer additional information. The main problem of open questions is that many different answers have to be summarised and possibly coded.

Slide 39 : Testing – pilot survey Questionnaire design is fraught with difficulties and problems. A number of rewrites will be necessary, together with refinement and rethinks on a regular basis.. To refine the questionnaire, you need to conduct a pilot survey. This is a small-scale trial prior to the main survey that tests all your question planning. For example, perhaps responses to open-ended questions become closed; questions which are all answered the same way can be omitted; difficult words replaced, etc. It is usual to pilot the questionnaires personally so that the respondent can be observed and questioned if necessary. By timing each question, you can identify any questions that appear too difficult, and you can also obtain a reliable estimate of the anticipated completion time for inclusion in the covering letter. The result can also be used to test the coding and analytical procedures to be performed later.

Slide 40 : Distribution and return The questionnaire should be checked for completeness to ensure that all pages are present and that none is blank or illegible. It is usual to supply a prepaid addressed envelope for the return of the questionnaire. You need to explain this in the covering letter and reinforce it at the end of the questionnaire, after the ‘Thank you’.

Interviews : Interviews Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behaviour. Interviews can be undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in a shopping centre, or some other agreed location.

Slide 42 : Personal interview Advantages: Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information. Good response rate. Completed and immediate. Possible in-depth questions. Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem. Can investigate motives and feelings. Can use recording equipment. Characteristics of respondent assessed – tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc. Can use props. If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach. Used to pilot other methods.

Slide 43 : Disadvantages: Need to set up interviews. Time consuming. Geographic limitations. Can be expensive. Normally need a set of questions. Respondent bias – tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview quickly. Embarrassment possible if personal questions. Transcription and analysis can present problems – subjectivity. If many interviewers, training required.

Slide 44 : Types of interview Structured -Based on a carefully worded interview schedule.-Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off.-Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly contentious or thought provoking.-Respondent may become irritated by having to give over-simplified answers. Semi-structured The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent to express him or herself at length. Unstructured This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondent’s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration – ‘Why do you say that?’ or, ‘That’s interesting, tell me more’ or, ‘Would you like to add anything else?’ being typical probes.

Step by Step Guide : Step by Step Guide Planning an interview: -List the areas in which you require information.-Decide on type of interview.-Transform areas into actual questions.-Try them out on a friend or relative.-Make an appointment with respondent(s) – discussing details of why and how long. -Try and fix a venue and time when you will not be disturbed. Conducting an interview: Personally –arrive on time be smart smile employ good manners find a balance between friendliness and objectivity. At the start –introduce yourself re-confirm the purpose assure confidentiality – if relevant specify what will happen to the data. The questions –speak slowly in a soft, yet audible tone of voice control your body language know the questions and topic ask all the questions. Responses –recorded as you go on questionnaire written verbatim, but slow and time-consuming summarised by you taped – agree beforehand – have alternative method if not acceptable consider effect on respondent’s answers proper equipment in good working order sufficient tapes and batteries minimum of background noise. At the end –ask if the respondent would like to give further details about anything or any questions about the research thank them

Slide 46 : Telephone interview This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview. Advantages: Relatively cheap. Quick. Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organisations. Wide geographic coverage. High response rate – keep going till the required number. No waiting. Spontaneous response. Help can be given to the respondent. Can tape answers.

Slide 47 : Disadvantages: Often connected with selling. Questionnaire required. Not everyone has a telephone. Repeat calls are inevitable – average 2.5 calls to get someone. Time is wasted. Straightforward questions are required. Respondent has little time to think. Cannot use visual aids. Can cause irritation. Good telephone manner is required. Question of authority.

Slide 48 : Getting started Locate the respondent: Repeat calls may be necessary especially if you are trying to contact people in organisations where you may have to go through secretaries. You may not know an individual’s name or title – so there is the possibility of interviewing the wrong person. You can send an advance letter informing the respondent that you will be telephoning. This can explain the purpose of the research. Getting them to agree to take part: You need to state concisely the purpose of the call – scripted and similar to the introductory letter of a postal questionnaire. Respondents will normally listen to this introduction before they decide to co-operate or refuse. When contact is made respondents may have questions or raise objections about why they could not participate. You should be prepared for these.

Focus group interviews : Focus group interviews A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and natural manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market talk about specific issues of interest.

Observation : Observation Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner. Observational methods may be: structured or unstructured disguised or undisguised natural or contrived personal mechanical non-participant participant, with the participant taking a number of different roles.

Slide 51 : Structured or unstructured In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and the information needed is specified. In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses. The potential for bias is high. Observation findings should be treated as hypotheses to be tested rather than as conclusive findings.

Disguised or undisguised : Disguised or undisguised In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are being observed and thus behave naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people disguised as shoppers. In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a danger of the Hawthorne effect – people behave differently when being observed.

Slide 53 : Natural or contrived Natural observation involves observing behaviour as it takes place in the environment, for example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet. In contrived observation, the respondents’ behaviour is observed in an artificial environment, for example, a food tasting session. Personal In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behaviour as it occurs. The observer may or may not normally attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The observer merely records what takes place. Mechanical Mechanical devices (video, closed circuit television) record what is being observed. These devices may or may not require the respondent’s direct participation. They are used for continuously recording on-going behaviour

Slide 54 : Non-participant The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being observed. He or she does not participate. Participant In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being investigated. Participant observation has its roots in ethnographic studies (study of man and races) where researchers would live in tribal villages, attempting to understand the customs and practices of that culture. It has a very extensive literature, particularly in sociology (development, nature and laws of human society) and anthropology (physiological and psychological study of man). Organisations can be viewed as ‘tribes’ with their own customs and practices.

Slide 55 : Case-studies The term case-study usually refers to a fairly intensive examination of a single unit such as a person, a small group of people, or a single company. Case-studies involve measuring what is there and how it got there. In this sense, it is historical. It can enable the researcher to explore, unravel and understand problems, issues and relationships. It cannot, however, allow the researcher to generalise, that is, to argue that from one case-study the results, findings or theory developed apply to other similar case-studies. The case looked at may be unique and, therefore not representative of other instances. It is, of course, possible to look at several case-studies to represent certain features of management that we are interested in studying. The case-study approach is often done to make practical improvements. Contributions to general knowledge are incidental.

Slide 56 : The case-study method has four steps: Determine the present situation. Gather background information about the past and key variables. Test hypotheses. The background information collected will have been analysed for possible hypotheses. In this step, specific evidence about each hypothesis can be gathered. This step aims to eliminate possibilities which conflict with the evidence collected and to gain confidence for the important hypotheses. The culmination of this step might be the development of an experimental design to test out more rigorously the hypotheses developed, or it might be to take action to remedy the problem. Take remedial action. The aim is to check that the hypotheses tested actually work out in practice. Some action, correction or improvement is made and a re-check carried out on the situation to see what effect the change has brought about.

Slide 57 : The case-study enables rich information to be gathered from which potentially useful hypotheses can be generated. But it can be a time-consuming process. It is also inefficient in researching situations which are already well structured and where the important variables have been identified. They lack utility when attempting to reach rigorous conclusions or determining precise relationships between variables.

Diaries : Diaries A diary is a way of gathering information about the way individuals spend their time on professional activities. They are not about records of engagements or personal journals of thought! Diaries can record either quantitative or qualitative data, and in management research can provide information about work patterns and activities.

Slide 59 : Advantages: Useful for collecting information from employees. Different writers compared and contrasted simultaneously. Allows the researcher freedom to move from one organisation to another. Researcher not personally involved. Diaries can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive interviewing. Used as an alternative to direct observation or where resources are limited.

Slide 60 : Disadvantages: Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to do, why and what you plan to do with the data. Diarists need to be of a certain educational level. Some structure is necessary to give the diarist focus, for example, a list of headings. Encouragement and reassurance are needed as completing a diary is time-consuming and can be irritating after a while. Progress needs checking from time-to-time. Confidentiality is required as content may be critical. Analyses problems, so you need to consider how responses will be coded before the subjects start filling in diaries.

Critical incidents : Critical incidents The critical incident technique is an attempt to identify the more ‘noteworthy’ aspects of job behaviour and is based on the assumption that jobs are composed of critical and non-critical tasks. For example, a critical task might be defined as one that makes the difference between success and failure in carrying out important parts of the job. The idea is to collect reports about what people do that is particularly effective in contributing to good performance. The incidents are scaled in order of difficulty, frequency and importance to the job as a whole. The technique scores over the use of diaries as it is centred on specific happenings and on what is judged as effective behaviour. However, it is laborious and does not lend itself to objective quantification.

Portfolios : Portfolios A measure of a manager’s ability may be expressed in terms of the number and duration of ‘issues’ or problems being tackled at any one time. The compilation of problem portfolios is recording information about how each problem arose, methods used to solve it, difficulties encountered, etc. This analysis also raises questions about the person’s use of time. What proportion of time is occupied in checking; in handling problems given by others; on self-generated problems; on ‘top-priority’ problems; on minor issues, etc? The main problem with this method and the use of diaries is getting people to agree to record everything in sufficient detail for you to analyse. It is very time-consuming!