Toward an Understanding of Foreign Language Classroom Climate as Generated by Student-to Student InteractionCarolyn GascoigneUniversity of Nebraska at OmahaThis paper calls for increased examination of the association between feelings of student-to-student classroom connectedness and student learning in the beginning post-secondary foreign language classroom.Cultivating a positive environment that promotes and facilitates student learning is an important goal for language educators at all levels of instruction. Indeed, a large number of studies have demonstrated the existence of a negative relationship between student discomfort or anxiety and academic performance in foreign language learning (Bailey, Onwuegbuzie & Daley, 2000; Chen & Chang, 2004; Horowitz, 2001; MacIntyre & Gardner, 2007; Phillips, 1992; Sparks & Ganschow, 2007; Young, 2001). This paper, however, draws attention to the need for investigations into the relationship between classroom climate, defined as “student-to-student perceptions of supportive and cooperative communication in the classroom” (Dwyer, Bingham, Carlson, Prisbell, Cruz, & Fus, 2004) and student learning. While researchers have made recommendations on various teaching methods and techniques that form particular language learning experiences for students, none have investigated or provided recommendations on the type of classroom climate, based on student-to-student interaction, that should be cultivated in order to provide an optimal classroom language learning context. Language educators and second language acquisition researchers have long promoted the creation of a learner-centered, low anxiety classroom environment (Chastain, 1975; Horowitz, 1986, 2001; Krashen, 1982; MacIntyre, 1999, Young, 1991). To date, research on anxiety in language learning has identified and discussed six potential sources of language anxiety: 1) personal anxieties; 2) learner beliefs about language learning; 3) instructor beliefs about language teaching; 4) instructor-learner interactions; 5) classroom procedures; and 6) language testing (Tallon, 2009; Young, 1991). While researchers are in agreement that the social context can have tremendous ramifications for language learners, this research has focused nearly exclusively on instructor-to-learner interaction while ignoring the effect that student-to-student interpersonal connections has on the learning environment in the second language classroom. While this type of research may be lacking in second language contexts, a series of studies employing an instrument called the Connected Classroom Climate Inventory (Dwyer, Bingham, Carlson, Prisbell, Cruz, & Fus, 2004) have been conducted at the University of Nebraska at Omaha in basic public speaking fundamentals courses in order to investigate the implications of classroom climate on various aspects of the public speaking process (Prisbell, Dwyer, Carson, Bingham, & Cruz, 2009; Bingham, Carlson, Dwyer, & Prisbell, 2009; Carlson, Dwyer, Bingham, Cruz, Prisbell, & Fus, 2006). In the above studies, classroom connectedness (or student-to-student connectedness) has been associated with lower communication anxiety levels in native language (L1) public speaking courses. Specifically, Prisbell, Dwyer, Carlson, Bingham, and Cruz (2009) found that instructors are not the only individuals whose behavior is associated with creating a climate conducive to student learning; certain student-to-student behaviors were found to be critical as well. However, it would be interesting and important for researchers to extend this line of inquiry in order to examine and measure the relationship between student perceptions of classroom connectedness (using instruments such as the Connected Classroom Climate Inventory) and performance in the beginning foreign language speaking environment, rather than in the native language basic public speaking fundamentals course. Given the research supporting the positive effects of low levels of anxiety on language learning as generated by personal anxieties, learner beliefs, teacher-to-student interactions, instructor beliefs, classroom procedures, and language testing, one might intuitively expect that student-to-student behavior, and the classroom climate that these behaviors create, will also play a significant role in student learning within the beginning foreign language classroom. Indeed, according to Schmuck and Schmuck (2001), the “students of a class are more than just a collection of individuals. They form a social system” (p.40). And, as informal relationships among and between students “increase in power and salience, the individual’s definition and evaluation of the self becomes more and more vulnerable to peer-group influence” (p.40). Moreover, the intricacies of the social system created by student-to-student relationships may or may not be obvious to the teacher because much of the social structuring and internal organization of a group takes place “underneath the surface” (Dornyei & Murphy, 2003, p. 15). It is here where the group establishes a social structure including “peer relations, status hierarchy, [and] role and norm systems” (p.15). Research in small group dynamics suggests that increased feelings of connectedness among individuals leads to increased productivity (Evans & Dion, 1997). Several factors stemming from the research in small group dynamics have been identified as being important for strengthening inter-member ties. These factors include:Proximity or physical closeness;Learning about one another;Shared history;Successful completion of group tasks;Cooperation in reaching a common goal;Sharing a joint hardship;Defining the group against another. (Dornyei, 1997).While the typical foreign language classroom lends itself to providing proximity or physical closeness among learners, Schmuck and Schmuck (2001) caution that certain seating arrangements may give rise to feelings of being a peripheral or unimportant member of the group. Specifically, seating arrangements that allow for increased eye contact among students, such as a circle or semi-circle, have been shown to facilitate communication and feelings of belonging. The typical foreign language classroom, perhaps more than that of other disciplines, also lends itself to learning about other students. Since the communicative competence revolution, pair- and group-work have become a mainstay of most language learning classrooms. However, mere pair- and group-work does not necessarily imply that students are learning about one another. Creating opportunities where language learners can exchange authentic personal information (e.g., names, likes, dislikes, etc.) while practicing the language is one way to ensure that students learn about one another and facilitate student-to-student connections.While having a shared history has been recommended as a way to increase connections, it is more difficult to achieve in the typical post-secondary language class where students may only be together for one semester. One way to manufacture a shared history within this temporary context is to prompt students to reflect on prior shared experiences such as the first day of class, the first exam, or common experiences at the university.The recommendation that students engage in “successful completion of groups tasks” and similarly, “cooperate in reaching a common goal” can be readily achieved due to the present emphasis on cooperative language learning espoused by many textbooks and language educators, and to the simple fact that “small group work has been a part of second language methodology for a long time” (Dornyei, 1997, p.483). Ensuring that group work requires cooperation and that there is a clearly defined goal to be attained collaboratively can move an activity from a simple language practice exercise to one that combines language practice with relationship building.Although sharing a joint hardship has been identified as another contributor to connection-building, few educators would welcome the notion of imposing additional hardships on their students. However, by drawing attention to obstacles that have been overcome by the group, such as mastering a difficult concept or completing a lengthy project, an instructor can arouse sentiments of shared success among students.The final recommendation: defining the group against another, may require outside assistance to implement. For example, a language teacher could arrange for a friendly competition with another class. Competitions might include examination results, participation in extracurricular activities, or fundraising. While research in group dynamics (Evans & Dion, 1991) and in other academic disciplines (Prisbell, Dwyer, Carlson, Bingham, & Cruz, 2009) has shown that group cohesion is positively correlated with group productivity and academic performance, it would stand to reason that increased student-to-student connections, or a connected classroom climate, should have a similarly positive impact on foreign language learning. This paper calls for an increase in second language research on the role of classroom climate and suggests that implications from research in other areas may have a place in the second language classroom as well. Indeed, the foreign language classroom itself is a somewhat artificial context that may constrain learners’ linguistic, sociocultural, and communicative competence. Nevertheless, this “artificial context” has the potential to be studied in order to offer strategies and suggestions that promote the degree of classroom connectedness that is most likely to enhance student learning.ReferencesBailey, P., Onwuegbuzie, A., and Daley, C. (2000). Correlates of Anxiety at Three Stages of the Foreign Language Learning Process. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 19, 474-490. Bingham, S., Carlson, R., Dwyer, K., and Prisbell, M. (2009). Student Misbehaviors, Instructor Responses, and Connected Classroom Climate: Implications for the Basic Course. Basic Communication Course Annual 21, 30-68.Carlson, R., Dwyer, K., Bingham, S., Cruz, A., Prisbell, M., and Fus, D. (2006). Connected Classroom Climate and Communication Apprehension: Correlations and Implications for the Basic Course. Basic Communication Course Annual 18, 1-27.Chastain, K. (1975). Affective and Ability Factors in Second Language Acquisition. 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