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http://gbr.sagepub.com Global Business Review DOI: 10.1177/097215090400500203 Global Business Review 2004; 5; 187 Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur Green Marketing: An Attitudinal and Behavioural Analysis of Indian Consumers http://gbr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/5/2/187 The online version of this article can be found at: Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com Additional services and information for Global Business Review can be found at: Email Alerts: http://gbr.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://gbr.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.in/about/permissions.asp Citations http://gbr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/5/2/187 Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 Environmentalism has fast emerged the world over as an important phenomenon during the last decade or so owing to increasing environmental problems such as acid rain, green house effect, land degradation and ozone layer depletion. Initially, most of the ecological pressures came from the nongovernmental organizations, local environmentalists and governmental agencies. But of late consumers have also become concerned with environmental problems and Green Marketing: An Attitudinal and Behavioural Analysis of Indian Consumers Sanjay K. Jain Gurmeet Kaur Environmentalism has fast emerged as a worldwide phenomenon. Business firms too have risen to the occasion and have started responding to environmental challenges by practising green marketing strategies. Green consumerism has played a catalystic role in ushering corporate environmentalism and making business firms green marketing oriented. Based on the data collected through a field survey, the paper makes an assessment of the extent of environmental awareness, attitudes and behaviour prevalent among consumers in India and lists implications of the study findings for the government and non-governmental organizations engaged in marketing of green ideas and products in the country. In the concluding section, limitations of the study have been discussed and suggestions provided for undertaking more thorough investigations in the area. started demanding eco-friendly productsespecially in developed countries. Witnessing an increase in demand for green products, many a business firm has turned green and started practising green marketing strategies (Doyle 1992; Johri and Sahasakmontri 1998; Keegan et al. 1995; Meffert and Kirchgeorg 1994; Peattie and Ratnayaka 1992; Vandermerwe and Oliff 1990). In recent years, environmentalism has caught up in India too. Due to pressures from GLOBAL BUSINESS REVIEW, 5:2 (2004) Sage Publications New Delhi/Thousand Oaks/London Sanjay K. Jain is Professor of Marketing and International Business in the Department of Commerce, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi. E-mail: skjaindse@vsnl.net. Gurmeet Kaur is Lecturer in Commerce in Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Khalsa College, University of Delhi, Delhi. Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 188 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur environmentalist lobbies, the government has enacted a number of legislations to combat the pollution menace and preserve natural resources. The movement, however, continues to be more of a government initiated one. Not much headway can be expected unless industrial and individual consumers turn green and start engaging on their own in eco-friendly behaviours. Experience in other countries suggests that ecologically aware and alert consumers can play a catalystic role in alleviating environmental problems. Since consumers themselves are major contributors to environmental degradation and pollution, any environmentally responsible behaviour on their part can go a long way in mitigating the problem of depletion of natural resources and bringing down pollution levels that have reached alarming heights in the country. Their increased concern for the environment and the resultant demand for green products can act as a pressure point on business firms to turn green and start marketing green products. In the wake of growing environmentalism, a substantial body of literature has come up over the years examining various aspects of green issues at the macro as well as firm levels. Up till the early nineties, however, the literature remained largely descriptive and lacked academic perspective and rigour. In this connection, Bohlen et al. (1993: 416) have rightly observed that whilst there has been a whole wealth of professional and popular literature on green issues published over the last decade, academic literature on the subject has generally been limited. It is only since the nineties that the researchers have started academically analyzing consumersgreen attitudes and behaviour, thus providing managerial insights to green marketers and policy makers to market their green ideas and products more effectively. Such studies, however, remain conspicuously absent in India. With a brief discussion of the concept and evolution of green marketing and its interface with green consumerism, the paper moves on to a discussion of research design used in the study for carrying out a survey for gauging the extent to which Indian consumers are environmentally aware, feel concerned with the environmental problems and engage in environmentally responsible behaviour. Findings of the consumer survey are analyzed next. The final section provides concluding observations and implications of the study along with suggestions for undertaking more in-depth investigation in the area in future. Green Marketing and Green Consumerism: An Interface Green marketing, also alternatively known as environmental marketing and sustainable marketing, refers to an organizations efforts at designing, promoting, pricing and distributing products that will not harm the environment (Pride and Ferrell 1993). Polonsky (1994) defines green marketing as all activities designed to generate and facilitate any exchanges intended to satisfy human needs or wants, such that the satisfaction of these needs and wants occurs, with minimal detrimental impact on the natural environment. Put simply, green marketing comprises all those marketing activities which the firms undertake to create a positive impact or lessen the negative impact of their products on the environment.1 Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 Green Marketing l 189 Though green marketing has in recent years received considerable attention from both marketing practitioners and academicians, it has existed for decades and has been practised by business firms without having been formally termed and recognized as such (Kuhre 1997). With environmentalism fast catching up during the eighties and nineties owing to the increased media exposures, pressure started mounting on the business firms to behave in an eco-responsible manner. Firms started practising green marketing by way of redesigning their products and packaging, and publicizing such improvements on the packages and in their advertisements to gain consumer attention. Though much of the gravitation towards green marketing seems to have taken place due to compulsions on firms to conform to environmental legislations and green pressures exerted on them by environmental lobbies, many a firm did start turning green due to green consumerism (Doyle 1992; Meffert and Kirchgeorg 1994; Peattie and Ratnayaka 1992; Vandermerwe and Oliff 1990). Consumerism which initially started as a movement to protect consumers against unethical marketing practises and dangerous products has become over time more broad based. Protection of environment is today one of key items on the agenda of consumer activists (Keegan et al. 1995). Growing concern among consumers for the environment has come to be known as green consumerism, and the number of consumers who espouse a concern for the environment is increasing over time (Donaton and Fitzgerland 1992). Elkington (1994: 93) defines green consumer as one who avoids products that are likely to endanger the health of the consumer or others; cause significant damage to the environment during manufacture, use or disposal; consume a disproportionate amount of energy; cause unnecessary waste; use materials derived from threatened species or environments; involve unnecessary use of, or cruelty to animals; adversely affect other countries.2 Rise of environmental concern among consumers has been viewed as perhaps the biggest opportunity for enterprise and invention the industrial world has ever seen(Cairncross 1992: 177). A number of factors have been responsible for the growth of green consumerism and these include heightened awareness of green issues among people often as a result of media coverage; increased levels of information available to help green consumers make informed decisions; emergence of an increasing number of green substitutes to traditional products; widespread use of green themes in advertising; a shift in values towards concern for environment and society; and increased marketing and merchandizing activity among environmental and social charities (Peattie 1992; Strong 1998). Seeing the phenomenal rise in environmental consciousness among consumers, business firms have started turning green, thus paving the way for what is referred to as corporate environmentalism (Banerjee et al. 2003; Doyle 1992; Hay and Lichter 2000; Menon and Menon 1997; Zinkhan and Carlson 1995). Shrewd business firms today view green developments more as market opportunities rather than simply as compulsions to comply with. Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 190 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur Review of Literature Since consumers have emerged as a force to reckon within accelerating growth of corporate environmentalism and use of green marketing, they have also become a focal point of marketing research. A wide gamut of issues concerning consumersenvironmental awareness, attitudes and behaviour has been examined in the past. Studies undertaken in the area of consumersenvironmental awareness and attitudes span from assessing environmental awareness/knowledge (Arbuthnot 1977; Arbuthnot and Lingg 1975; Arcury et al. 1987; Chandler 1972; Diamantopoulos et al. 2003; Grunert 1991; Grunert and Kristensen 1994; Lyons and Breakwell 1994; Maloney and Ward 1973; Maloney et al. 1975; Meffert and Bruhn 1996; Moore 1981; Ostman and Parker 1987; Samdahl and Robertson 1989; Schlegelmilch et al. 1996; Tognacci et al. 1972) to analyzing perceived importance of environment (Amyx et al. 1994; Kinnear et al. 1974; Roberts 1996; Roberts and Bacon 1997; Van Liere and Dunlap 1981), importance of being environmentally friendly (McCarty and Shrum 1994), inconvenience of being environmentally friendly (ibid.), perceived consumer effectiveness, or the degree to which an individual feels s/he can make a difference in the quality of environment (Antil 1978; Berger and Corbin 1992; Ellen et al. 1991; Kinnear et al. 1974; Roberts 1995, 1996; Roberts and Bacon 1997; Webster 1975; Weiner and Doescher 1991), willingness to pay more for environmentally less harmful products (Berger and Corbin 1992; Coddington 1993; Davis 1993; McDougall 1993; Ottman 1993; Pearce 1990). Several studies focusing on proenvironmental behaviour indicate that consumers are integrating their concern for the environment into their environmental behaviour (Allen and Ferrand 1999; Arbuthnot 1977; Arbuthnot and Lingg 1975; Bratt 1999; Ellen 1994; Ellen et al., 1991; Gamba and Oskamp 1994; Gray 1985; Shrum et al. 1995). Various types and aspects of pro-environmental behaviours investigated by the researchers include: generalized behaviour (Diekmann and Preisendorfer 1992; Lee et al. 1995; Oskamp et al. 1991; Pickett et al. 1993; Tracy and Oskamp 1984), sector-based behaviour such as recycling (Aroson 1992; Bratt 1999; Ellen 1994; Geller 1989; Macdonald and Vopni 1994; Oskamp et al. 1991; Scott 1999; Suchard and Polonski 1991), transport behaviour(Balderjahn 1988; Bratt 1999; Priewasser 1999), energy consumption(Balderjahn 1988; Bratt 1999; Geller 1981; Leonard-Barton 1981; Neuman 1986; Roberts 1996), considering environmental issues when making a purchase and buying environmentally safe products (Balderjahn 1988; Bratt 1999; Brooker 1976; Coddington 1993; Davis 1993; Ottman 1993; Reizenstein et al. 1974; Roper Organization 1990, 1992). Besides, some of the previous studies on environmentally responsive consumerism have also addressed the implications of buyer behaviour (Charter 1992; Ottman 1989; Peattie 1992) and changes in organizational management practises required for the entrepreneur (Charter 1992; Strong 1998; Welford and Gouldson 1993). It is unfortunate that most studies on green consumers and green marketing have been carried out in developed countries, and only a few of them originate from developing countries. Such studies are conspicuously lacking in the Indian context. Findings of a few studies undertaken in this respect in India are not publicly accessible because they are proprietory. It is against this backdrop Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 Green Marketing l 191 that a survey of Indian consumers was carried out to ascertain their level of environmental awareness, attitudes and behaviour. The Study Based on studies undertaken in the past as well as our understanding of the subject, a structured questionnaire was developed for collecting attitudinal and behavioural data from the respondents. Both open-ended and closed-ended questions were employed for eliciting desired information from respondents. Various environmental issues and developments as identified by Zimmer et al. (1994) were used to ascertain the respondentsenvironmental awareness and knowledge. Necessary modifications in the list were made to make it suitable to the Indian context. For tapping the domain of environmentally friendly attitudes and behaviours, multiitem scales were developed. Items used in these scales were largely culled out from two empirically tested and used scales, namely, a 30-item Environmentally Conscious Consumer Behaviour(ECCB) scale developed by Roberts (1996) and a 45-item Total Environmentally Friendly Behaviourscale developed by Allen and Ferrand (1999). A five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree) was used for obtaining responses. A six-point scale with anchors 1 for neverto 6 for usuallywas also employed side by side to measure frequency with which respondents were engaging in environmentally friendly behaviour. A few open-ended questions were added to the questionnaire for ascertaining respondentsperceptions about the possible role of government, companies/manufacturers, individuals and others in resolving the environmental problems; and in identifying obstacles that respondents perceive to come in the way of alleviating environmental problems. The draft questionnaire was pilot tested with select consumers. Based on observations made by respondents in the pilot study, modifications were made in the questionnaire. A revised questionnaire was personally administered to a convenience sample of 250 consumers living in Delhi during SeptemberDecember 2001. After repeated follow ups, only 209 completed questionnaires could be received. Table 1 provides a profile of the sampled respondents. It can be observed that Table 1 Profile of Respondents Characteristics Percentage (n = 209) Gender Male 41.15 Female 58.85 Age (in years) Below 24 25.84 2435 45.93 35 and above 28.23 Education Secondary School 13.88 Graduate 46.87 Post Graduate 39.25 Monthly Family Income (Rs) Below 10,000 22.97 10,00020,000 29.67 20,00035,000 25.36 35,000 and above 22.00 Occupation Housewife 11.00 Student 22.49 Professional 16.27 Business/Self-employed 12.92 Employed/Service* 37.32 Note: *Employed/service people included lecturers (28.21%), managers (28.21%), software professionals/engineers (17.95%), doctors (7.69%), bankers (7.69%), clerks (5.13%), lawyers (2.56%) Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer siangnhd on gOcatozbeert 1t0e, d20 0o9 fficers (2.56%).192 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur though the sample comprises people belonging to different socio-demographic groups, it is somewhat skewed towards more educated and employed/salaried class persons. The collected data was analyzed using factor and reliability analyses. Mean and dispersion scores were computed to summarize the data and draw inferences. The approach used by Scott (1999) was adopted for interpreting mean scores. In respect of the fivepoint Likert scale items, while a mean score in the range of 3.2 to 2.8 was construed as indicating indifference; a score above 3.2 was taken as indicating positive attitude, and a score below 2.8 as indicating negative attitude(after necessary reverse coding, if required, for the given scale item). In the case of the six-point scale anchored on 1 for neverto 6 for usually, on the other hand, mean scores lying in the ranges of 1.01.49, 1.52.49, 2.53.49, 3.54.49, 4.55.49, and 5.5 and above were interpreted as implying never, rarely, occasionally, sometimes, frequentlyand usually, respectively (after necessary reverse coding, if required, for the given scale item). Major Findings of the Study General Environmental Concern With a view to ascertaining respondentsattitudes towards various environmental issues and problems, they were presented with a set of 15 statements and asked to indicate their agreement/disagreement with each statement by checking an appropriate alternative on a five-point Likert scale. Their responses were factor analyzed with the help of principal component analysis using varimax rotation to detect the underlying dimensions. The analysis resulted in five dimensions which, based on their constituent items, were named: perceived relationship between economic growth and environment, peoples concern for environment, genuineness of environmental concern, perceived role of various contributors to environmental problems, and perceived effectiveness of environmental actions. Cronbach alpha coefficients were computed for each dimension to test scale reliability. Reliability coefficients along with mean scores for each dimension as well as mean score for individual items constituting the dimension are provided in Table 2. The reliability coefficients are high enough only for the second and fifth dimensions. For the rest, Cronbach alpha values are relatively low, suggesting need for improving these scales in the future. It can be observed from Table 2 that while respondents appear ambivalent about the relationship between economic growth and environment, they do consider that there are limits to growth. But the respondents do not think that the earth has reached a limit to support an additional number of people. Concerning the second dimension, an overall mean score of 3.4 shows peoples concern for environment. Respondents do feel that human beings have no right to modify natural environment and that people in India are concerned about environment. Mean scores of 3.3 and 3.86 (after reverse coding) for the first two scale items are a pointer to these inferences. But the respondents appear indifferent about the statement that younger people are more environmentally concerned. High positive scores in respect of third and fourth dimensions imply a feeling among the respondents that rising concern for environment is a genuine one and is not just a gim-Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shmyamivceekr s.in gRh oen sOcptoboern 10d, 2e00n9 ts also opine that variousGreen Marketing l 193 Table 2 General Environmental Concern Reliability (Cronbach Mean Score1 Dimension2, 3 Alpha Value) (N=209) A. Perceived Relationship between Economic Growth and Environment 0. 6113 1. Economic development is accompanied by environmental problems. 2.90 2. We are approaching the limit to the number of people that earth can support. 2.96 3. There are limits to growth beyond which industrialized society cannot expand. 3.62 Overall Score 3.16 B. Peoples Concern for Environment 0.7107 1. People in India are not concerned about environmental problems. (R) 3.87 2. Humans have a right to modify natural environment to suit their needs. (R) 3.31 3. Younger generation is more concerned with environment. 3.05 Overall Score 3.41 C. Genuineness of Environmental Concern 0. 5595 1. Sudden rise in environmental concern is all just a hype. (R) 4.20 2. People have other serious problems than environmental degradation. (R) 3.67 3. Environmental concern shown by companies is a sales gimmick. (R) 4.09 Overall Score 3.98 D. Perceived Role of Various Contributors to Environmental Problems 0. 6408 1. Politicians are responsible for much of the environmental problems. 3.77 2. Government departments advertise a lot to reduce wastage, but they themselves waste resources. 4.22 3. Lack of enforcement of laws is a major cause for environmental problems in India. 4.16 Overall Score 4.05 E. Perceived Effectiveness of Environmental Actions 0.7158 1. Government can do a lot to sustain the environment. 3.37 2. Laws cannot do much to reduce environmental degradation. (R) 3.33 3. Little can people do to reduce environmental degradation. (R) 2.40 Overall Score 3.03 Notes: 1. Scale used for measuring responses was 1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Indifferent; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly agree. 2. R against a scale item indicates that score for the item was reversed to maintain directional consistency with the dimension. 3. Total variance explained by above five extracted factors/dimensions having eigen value greater than 1 was 60.67%. government departments and politicians are responsible for contributing to environmental problems. Lack of proper enforcement of laws is also reported as a contributory factor to environmental degradation. With regard to the dimension perceived effectiveness of environmental actions, respondents appear indifferent; they feel that there is little that people can do to reduce Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by sheyanmvveeir rsiongnh omn Oectonbetr a10l, 2d009e gradation. However, they194 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur hold the opinion that the government and laws can act as a major deterrent to the occurrence of environmental problems. Personal Environmental Concern A set of nine statements was used to ascertain respondentsperceptions about their own environmental awareness and concern. A factor analysis of these statements yielded three dimensions, namely perceived personal environmental awareness, perceived influence of green promotion and willingness to buy green products, and perceived effectiveness of personal environmental actions. These three factors together explain 57.85 per cent of the total variance present in the data set. Table 3 presents mean scores concerning each of these dimensions along with their reliability values and mean scores for individual items constituting a given dimension. The first dimension relates to perceived personal awareness about environmental issues. Since the Cronbach alpha value is low (just 0.4884), not much faith can be placed in the overall mean score. When analyzed in terms of individual item scores, respondents appear ambivalent about being fully aware of environmental issues and problems. They depict only a slight agreement with the second scale item tapping awareness about Indian laws that regulate or tend to minimize pollution. As far as the dimension relating to perceived influence of green promotion and willingness to buy green productsis concerned, respondents report having been influenced by advertisements promoting waste paper recycling and conservation of water, electricity and petrol (see Table 3). Respondents appear amenable to pay more for the certified eco-friendly products and seek eco-friendly products. These results are quite in conformity with those of studies undertaken in other countries which report that consumers not only desire to purchase products that are environmentally less harmful, but are also willing to pay more to do so (Coddington 1993; Davis 1993; Ottman 1992). A single-item scale was used for tapping perceived effectiveness of personal environmental action. A mean score of 3.08 obtained in this respect shows indifference existing among respondents. In order to further gauge respondentsawareness with specific environmental issues and problems, they were provided with a list of 34 environmental issues and developments and asked to tick the issues and problems they were sufficiently knowledgeable and felt confident of discussing with others. Based on their awareness level, environmental issues and problems were categorized into four broad groups, and the results are presented in Table 4. Respondents do not appear to be uniformly aware and knowledgeable of various environmental issues and problems. The highest level of awareness (60 per cent and above) is reported for issues and developments pertaining to air pollution, overpopulation, vehicular pollution, deforestation, energy conservation, forest preservation, compressed natural gas (CNG), acid rain, waste control, waste disposal/reduction, resource depletion, eco-friendly products and greenhouse effect. But the awareness level is found to be 40 to 60 per cent in respect of issues and developments relating to energy efficient bulb/tubes, alternative energy sources, recycled paper, reusable containers, soil pollution/erosion, recycling, toxic waste, biodegradable packaging, resource conservation, aerosol containers and depleting ground Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shwyamaveteer srin glhe onv Oectlob.er 10, 2009 Green Marketing l 195 Table 3 Perceived Personal Environmental Awareness and ConcernReliability (Cronbach Mean Score1 Dimension2, 3 Alpha Value) (N=209) A. Perceived Personal Environmental Awareness 0.4884 1. I am fully aware of environmental issues/problems. 3.27 2. I am aware of laws in India that regulate or minimize pollution. 2.76 Overall score 3.01 B. Perceived Influence of Green Promotion and Willingness to Buy Green Products 0.7605 1. Influenced by advertisements promoting wastepaper recycling. 3.66 2. Influenced by advertisements promoting water conservation. 4.08 3. Influenced by advertisements promoting electricity conservation. 4.21 4. Influenced by advertisements promoting petrol conservation. 4.15 5. Readiness to pay more for certified eco-friendly products. 3.85 6. If available, I would seek environmentally certified products. 3.92 Overall Score 3.97 C. Perceived Effectiveness of Personal Environmental Action 1. I can do little to save or preserve environment. (R) 3.08 Notes: 1. Scale used for measuring responses was 1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Indifferent; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly agree. 2. R against a scale item indicates that the score for the item was reversed to maintain directional consistency with the dimension. 3. Total variance explained by above three extracted factors/dimensions having eigen values greater than 1 was 57.85%. Table 4 Awareness and Knowledge of Environmental Issues and Developments Percentage of Respondents Aware of Environmental Environmental Issues/Developments Issues/Developments Air pollution, overpopulation, vehicular pollution, deforestation, energy conservation, forest preservation, compressed natural gas (CNG), acid rain, waste control, waste disposal/reduction, resource depletion, eco-friendly products and greenhouse effect. 60 and above Energy efficient bulb/tubes, alternative energy sources, recycled paper, reusable containers, soil pollution/erosion, recycling, toxic waste, biodegradable packaging, resource conservation, aerosol containers and depleting ground water level. 4060 Species preservation, nuclear proliferation, chloro-fluorocarbons (CFCs), safe technology, environmental labelling, sustainable development, desertification, landfills and incinerators. 2040 Low phosphate detergents Less than 20 Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 196 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur On the other hand, only 20 to 40 per cent of the respondents report having sufficient knowledge of issues like species preservation, nuclear proliferation, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), safe technology, environmental labelling, sustainable development, desertification, landfills and incinerators. The percentage of people knowing about low phosphate detergentsthe most common cause of water pollutionis surprisingly low, at less than 20 per cent. In overall terms, the respondents are found to be having uneven knowledge of various environmental issues and developments. Personal Environmental Behaviour Personal environmental behaviour in the present study has been studied in terms of incidence as well as frequency of engaging in environmentally friendly behaviour. The following sub-sections discuss findings of the study with regard to personal environmental behaviour. Incidence of Personal Environmental Behaviour Incidence of engaging in environmentally friendly activities was measured through the use of 12 scale items. The scale items were anchored on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 for strongly disagreeto 5 for strongly agree. Since factor analysis of 12 statements tapping different aspects of pro-environmental behaviours undertaken by the respondents on a personal level did not yield satisfactory results, these statements were intuitively grouped into four dimensions based on core constructs being tapped by them as well as the structures obtained during different rounds of factor analyses. Reliability coefficients as well as mean scores for the resulting dimensions are presented in Table 5. The first dimension pertains to environment related information seeking behaviourand is composed of two scale items. Cronbach alpha value for this dimension is 0.7673, indicating a high level of scale reliability. An overall mean score of 3.45 implies that the respondents do engage in information seeking behaviours such as reading publications on environment issues and taking other steps to remain environmentally informed. Similar favourable results emerge with regard to the next two dimensions: conservation of natural resourcesand pollution prevention activities. Mean scores in the range of 3.51 to 4.17 suggest that respondents engage with greater incidence in environmentally friendly behaviours such as shopping once or twice a week to save fuel, installation of water saving devices in toilet tanks, choosing reusable rather than disposable plates or utensils to reduce waste, purchasing least polluting products and not littering the area even if no trashcans/dustbins are available. These results are similar to those obtained in previous studies (Coddington 1993; Davis 1993; Ottman 1992). Results relating to the environmental activismdimension present a very poor picture. Respondents show ambivalence in respect of first two items: influencing others to behave in environmentally friendly mannerand convincing family and friends not to buy environmentally harmful products. Though the respondents show agreement with the statement that they have actively participated in environmental campaigns, a score of 3.27 points to a very low incidence of such behaviour. Mean scores of 2.77 and 2.75 for the last two items imply respondentsslight disagreement with the statements that they have convinced friends to reduce car driving by car-poolingand reported Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shvyaimovelear stinigoh onn Ooctofb elr a10w, 20(09s ) to authorities.Green Marketing l 197 Table 5 Incidence of Personally Engaging in Eco-friendly BehaviourReliability (Cronbach Mean Score1 Dimension Alpha Value) (N=209) A. Information Seeking Behaviour 0.7673 1. I read publications on environmental issues. 3.47 2. I take steps to be informed about environmental issues. 3.42 Overall Score 3.45 B. Conservation Behaviour 0.5639 1. I shop once/twice for weeks requirement save fuel, plastic bags. 3.73 2. I have installed water saving device in the toilet tank. 3.68 3. I have chosen reusable than disposable plates or utensils to reduce waste. 3.51 Overall Score 3.64 C. Pollution Avoidance Behaviour 1. If choice available, I choose products contributing least pollution. 4.17 2. I refrain littering even if no trashcan/dustbin available. 3.77 Overall Score 3.97 D. Environmental Activism 0.5971 1. I influence others behave in environmentally friendly manner. 3.00 2. I convince family, friends not buy environmentally harmful. 2.96 3. I actively participated in environmental campaign. 3.27 4. I convinced friends reduce car driving by car-pooling. 2.77 5. I report violation of law(s) protecting natural resources to authorities. 2.75 Overall Score 2.95 Note: 1. scale used for measuring responses was 1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Indifferent; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly agree. On the whole, the results suggest that though respondents engage in environmentally friendly behaviour, they confine themselves to engaging in self-oriented activities such as information seeking, conserving environment and preventing pollution. They lack in environmental activism, that is, persuading others to go green or reporting the matter to concerned authorities. Frequency of Environmental Behaviour To further probe into environmental behaviour, respondents were presented with a set of 23 items to report the frequency of engaging in environmentally friendly behaviour. A six-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (usually) was used for obtaining responses from respondents. These scale items represented three dimensions, namely, conservation behaviour, environmentally friendly purchase behaviourand environmental activism. The items were classified into these dimensions intuitively without making use of factor analysis results that were found quite messed up. Results relating to these three frequencyoriented dimensions are presented in Table 6. Since mean scores in respect of the first two dimensions as well as their constituent scale items are in general above 3.5, these imply respondents to be frequentlyor usu-Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shayalmlvyeer seinnghg ona Ogctoibnerg 10 ,i 2n00 9environment conservation198 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur and environmentally friendly purchasebehaviours. With regard to environmental activism, however, the mean scores are relatively lower, once again suggesting that respondents engage less frequently in activities such as influencing others and taking actions that can be effective in fighting environmental deterioration. Table 6 Frequency of Personally Engaging in Environmentally Friendly Behaviour Reliability (Cronbach Mean Score1 Dimension2 Alpha Value) (N=209) A. Conservation Behaviour 0. 6671 1. I switch off lights/fans when I leave office/class/public buildings. 4.97 2. I have installed expensive light bulbs/tubes in house/office to save energy. 4.63 3. I have replaced light bulbs to smaller wattage to conserve electricity. 4.32 4. I use a low-phosphate detergent (or soap) for washing clothes. 3.65 5. I drive my car/scooter as little as possible. 4.19 6. I use cooler, air conditioners, fans, lights, etc., as little as possible. 4.27 7. I use disposable plastic and paper items. (R) 3.22 8. I use both sides of paper and waste envelopes for rough work. 4.58 9. I use plastic bags given by shopkeepers than carry own bags. (R) 3.43 Overall Mean Score 4.14 B. Environmentally Friendly Purchase Behaviour 0. 7338 1. I look for environmental information when I buy everyday items. 3.82 2. I minimize purchase of products using scarce/short supply resources. 4.25 3. I purchased products causing less pollution. 4.31 4. I do not buy products of ecologically irresponsible companies. 3.47 5. I buy products which can be recycled. 3.89 6. I buy energy efficient household appliances. 4.41 7. I buy toilet paper/napkins made from recycled paper. 3.73 8. I have switched brand due to ecological reasons. 3.27 9. I have switched products for ecological reasons. 3.40 Overall Mean Score 3.84 C. Environmental Activism 0. 6529 1. I participate in environmental activities. 3.16 2. I join in community cleanup efforts. 3.03 3. I have picked up some other persons litter. 2.47 4. I donated money or paid membership to conservation organization. 2.11 5. I attended meeting of environmental organization in last six months. 1.71 Overall Mean Score 2.50 Notes: 1. Scale used for measuring responses was: 1 = Never; 2 = Rarely; 3 = Occasionally; 4 = Sometimes; 5 = Frequently; and 6 = Usually. 2. R against a scale item indicates that the score for the item was reversed to maintain directional consistency with the dimension. Overall, the same pattern emerges from the analysis of results presented in Table 6 as was found in the case of the incidences of eco-friendly behaviour reported in Table 5. Respondents are found engaging in environmentally friendly behaviour more on a personal level rather than taking the movement to the streets. Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 Green Marketing l 199 Perceived Obstacles to Combating Environmental Degradation Non-availability of environmentally friendly products, lack of willingness to protect environment, lack of enforcement of laws and indifference of people and the government towards environment have been stated as major obstacles in alleviating environmental problems by more than 50 per cent of the respondents (see Table 7). About 25 to 40 per cent respondents attribute the absence of ecoefficient alternatives, low level of education and corruption as hindrances in resolving environmental problems. Less than 20 per cent respondents view overpopulation, underdevelopment and resistance to change among people as obstacles in alleviating environmental problems. Table 7 Hindrances in Resolving Environmental Degradation Percentage Hindrances (N = 209) 1. Non-availability of environmentally friendly products 61.24 2. Lack of willingness to protect the environment 59.81 3. Lack of enforcement of laws 55.02 4. Indifference of people and government towards the environment 53.59 5. Non-availability of eco-efficient alternatives 40.67 6. Low level of education 37.80 7. Corruption 32.53 8. Overpopulation 25.36 9. Underdevelopment of the country 17.22 10. Resistance to change 11.96 Possible Actions to be Taken by Individuals and Organizations Respondents were also asked to report what possible measures can be taken by individuals and organizations in ameliorating environmental problems. Wide-ranging ideas were provided by the respondents which are summarized in Exhibit 1. The measures are selfexplanatory and can be adopted at the individual, organizational and governmental levels to overcome the problem of environmental pollution and degradation. Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations Survey results reveal that respondents do believe in genuineness of sudden rise in environmental concern and perceive people in India as willing to take environmentally friendly steps to ameliorate environmental problems. The government, politicians and lack of enforcement of laws have been reported as factors responsible for much of the environmental problems. Respondents, moreover, feel that there is little that people can on their own do to reduce environmental degradation. It is rather government agencies and a stricter enforcement of laws that can help in protecting and sustaining the environment. Respondents have uneven knowledge about various environmental issues and developments. They conspicuously lack knowledge about environmental legislations. The results are a clear pointer to the ineffective dissemination of information and consumer education on various environmental issues/problems and legislations. A low level of environmental awareness calls for more intensive as well as extensive efforts on the part of various government and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) engaged in marketing of green ideas for making people fully aware and knowledgeable of Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by sheyanmvveeir rsiongnh omn Oectonbetra 10l, 2p009r oblems and issues.200 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur Exhibit 1 Measures Suggested for Solving Environmental Problems Measures to be Taken by Individuals l Using eco-friendly products l Regular vehicular pollution check-ups l Help organizations working for environmental causes l Avoid using plastics l Reduce use of private vehicles l Make judicial use of resources l Abide by environmental laws l Gather and spread environmental information Measures to be Taken by Government l Enforce environmental laws on polluting industries l Educate public about ways to conserve resources l Eliminate corruption l Allocate more money and delegate power to municipal authorities to combat pollution l Government departments/agencies should reduce pollution l Improve public transport system l Introduce pollution free fuel (like CNG) for all vehicles l Penalize/remove polluting small-scale industries from residential areas l Develop green areas/parks by planting more trees Measures to be Taken by Others l NGOs should work more rigorously for environmental causes l Educate children about environment l NRIs should contribute ideas to resolve environmental problems Measures to be Taken by Manufacturers l Produce eco-friendly products l Waste treatment l Popularize eco-friendly products l Recycle scrap/water l Use eco-friendly raw material l Save/conserve non-replenishable resources l Tree plantation l Follow environmental laws l Engage in R&D to protect environment So far as environmental behaviour is concerned, findings of the study are quite encouraging. Notwithstanding a low level of environmental awareness, respondents have reported a high level of environmental concern and behaviour. On a personal level, respondents positively affirm that they have been influenced by green communication campaigns. They exhibit willingness to take environmentally friendly actions, seek environment related information, and pursue activities that help conserve the environment and prevent pollution. Their pro-environmental behaviour, however, is found confined to themselves. They hardly engage in environmental activism. They also hold the perception that there is little that people can do on an individual level to combat the problem of environmental degradation. Findings of the present study in regard to environmental awareness and knowledge appear somewhat in contrast to those found in the context of consumers in developed countries. Consumers in developed countries are in general more aware of ecological issues and they show greater environmental concern as they are already paying a heavy toll on account of environmental degradation that has occurred during the seventies and eighties due to rapid industrialization and development of their economies. A large number of environmental organizations have mushroomed in these countries to champion the cause of environmentalism. Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 Green Marketing l 201 Environmental laws are also strictly enforced to preserve and protect the fast deteriorating environment. Seeing an upsurge in the demand for green products, business firms in the developed world have increasingly started to offer green products and to make use of eco-labelling programmes to improve their sales and corporate image. In a developing country like India, however, a true green consumerism is still in a nascent stage. Being plagued by other much more serious problems like overpopulation, abject poverty, mass unemployment, high levels of illiteracy, uneven distribution of income and wealth, lack of transportation and health-care facilities, people hardly get time to engage in environmental activism and fight against environmental degradation. In the past, even consumers in developed countries have faced similar problems. But since the intensity of these problems has now petered out in these countries, people today exhibit much greater concern and activism about the environment. As suggested by respondents, government as well as environmental laws can do a lot to combat the menace of environmental problems. Various government agencies can play a catalystic role in creating awareness among consumers about environmental concerns and need for engaging in eco-friendly behaviour. During the field survey, many respondents categorically pointed out that government organizations themselves are major contributors to environmental pollution and waste of resources. These organizations advertize a lot about protecting the environment, but when it comes to practising what is preached, they cut a sorry figure. In order to allay this impression from the public mind in future and foster public belief in government sponsored environmental campaigns, it is imperative that activities of government organizations and public utilities in future are strictly monitored and these organizations set precedents before asking others to behave in an environmentally responsible manner. In the opinion of the respondents, equally important is the need to stringently implement and enforce various environmental laws on polluting industries and business firms. The study entails equally important implications for marketers. Business firms need to view growing environmentalism as a market opportunity rather than merely as compliance to increasing environmental pressures and legislations. They should start eco-designing their products and adopt green manufacturing technologies. As is evident from the findings of the study, respondents are willing to buy eco-products but they feel constrained in their efforts due to a dearth of such products in the market. It is heartening to note that the surveyed respondents do not believe that the response shown by business organizations to environmental concerns is just a sales gimmick. The respondents, rather, possess faith in the genuineness of efforts made by these organizations. It is, therefore, high time that business firms rise to the occasion and start embracing green manufacturing technologies and green marketing strategies to capitalize upon green consumer sentiments lest they are forced to be closed down under pressure of boycott by environmental lobbyists and growing environmental regulations. As is evident from the experience of firms in developed countries, it is better if the firms act proactively and incorporate environmental concepts in their business philosophy and decisions. This can go a long way in improving their market revenues and building Downloaded from http://gbr.sagepub.com by shyamveer singh on October 10, 2009 202 l Sanjay K. Jain and Gurmeet Kaur a better corporate image in the eyes of various stakeholders. As a caveat, it would not be out of place to mention here a few limitations of the study. Due to a small sample used in the study and that too comprising Delhi-based persons, findings of the study are not generalizable to the populace of the country as a whole. In future, studies employing larger and more representative samples are called for to arrive at a conclusive evidence about the true extent of environmental consciousness among consumers. Due to time and resource constraints, only select aspects of the environmental attitudes and behaviours have been studied. This limitation needs to be rectified in future by taking into account other aspects that have been investigated in earlier studies. Moreover, many of the multi-item scales employed in the study have not turned out to be statistically reliable. These scales need further refinements and testing. No attempt has been made in the present study to analyze the relationship between environmental awareness and various types of environmentally friendly behaviours. In recent years, a substantial body of literature has been built up examining the causal relationship between environmental attitudes and behaviour (Allen and Ferrand 1999; Arbuthnot 1977; Balderjahn 1988; Bratt 1999; Davis 1993). This aspect needs to be examined in the Indian context too. It will be equally insightful to investigate whether consumers belonging to different genders, occupations, and socio-economic and psychographic groups differ in their environmental attitudes and behaviours (Schlegelmilch et al. 1996; Zimmer et al. 1994). In case differences are found, customers can be clustered into various green segments and differential marketing strategies can be evolved to market green ideas and products more efficiently and effectively to different groups of green customers. NOTES 1. For a further discussion on conceptual and strategic aspects of green marketing, see Jain and Kaur (forthcoming). 2. 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