teachermuriel@yahoo.co.uk Advanced Grammar Course 2008-2009 by Muriel Raes homework, additional material and remedial exercises http://pcvo.hogent.be/login: .......................... password: .......................... Teacher Muriel EFL1 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference SURVEY OF TENSES English tenses have two elements of meaning: time and aspect. Time Is the action past, present or future? Does it refer to all time? It is important to remember that time and tense do no always coincide, thus, present tenses often refer to the present, but not always. Aspect The three aspects add another layer of meaning to the action of the verb Simple the action is seen as a complete whole Continuous the action is seen as having duration Perfect the action is seen as completed before another time The choice of a tense depends on the period in which the speaker situates the action: The choice of aspect depends on the way the speaker sees the action: Continuous: focuses on the duration of an activity, which is seen at some point between its beginning and end. The activity is not permanent and its duration is limited. past present future past continuous present continuous future continuous period in the present present tenses period started in the past and is going on until now present perfect tenses period in the past past tenses period before another period in the past past perfect period in the future future tenses period before another period in the future future perfect 00 Teacher Muriel EFL2 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r temporary action → I’m staying at my mother’s house. process of change → Prices are rising. background in a story → It was raining hard and the wind was howling. Simple: the action is viewed as a whole unit past present future simple past simple present general truth → Water boils at 100°C. habit I go to English class once a week. permanent state I understand what you mean. uncontrolled actions of the senses I saw a beautiful painting. action one after another in a story The lights went out, I lost my balance and fell. Perfect: expresses either an action completed before another time OR an action producing a result or a state of affairs relevant to a later situation past present future past perfect (continuous) present perfect(continuous) future perfect(continuous) action seen as a whole with possible result • James has painted the ceiling. action going on for some time • I’ve been living in London for 7 years. polite questions • Have you been waiting long? Teacher Muriel EFL3 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Teacher Muriel EFL4 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference REVIISIION OF TENSES USE The Present Simple is used for things that happen regularly → As temperatures fall with the approach of winter, the soil freezes and contracts. for permanent states → A colony of Antarctic penguins lives in Marwell Zoo. for a general truth/law of nature/fact → Water boils at 100°C. → Broken bones in adults don’t heal as fast as they do in children. when we want to express the immediacy of an event, particularly when the action being described is a quick one and is therefore over before the description finishes → France kicks off, Zidane passes to Henry, Henry cuts inside... to describe a series of events or actions (e.g. to give directions or instructions), often with impersonal you → From here, you cross the road, go through an iron gate and follow the path west... If we wish to give the events of a past narrative or an anecdote more immediacy (esp. in speech/newspaper headlines) → There’s an old woman with thick glasses and a name tag. I go up to her and ask... → Addicted film star gets three years for new drug lapse. The Present Continuous is used for things that are happening at/around the time of speaking → I’ll be with you in a minute. I’m just finishing something in the kitchen. for a temporary situation (live, work, study, stay) → I’m living with some friends until I find a flat. in sports commentaries when the action is in progress throughout the time of speaking → They’re now entering the back straight and El Garrouj is starting to pull away... to describe things which are changing 11 Teacher Muriel EFL5 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r → British summers are getting hotter and winters are getting wetter. for an irritating habit (something done more often than the speaker thinks is normal or reasonable) → I’m always losing my key. → John is never satisfied. He’s always complaining. An exception to the use of the Present Continuous to describe actions in progress is Here comes... and There goes..., which are always in the Present Simple. → Here comes the postman. (Here is coming the postman.) There are a number of verbs in English which we rarely use in a continuous tense. They often describe states of being, thinking, possessing or feeling. → Most people don’t believe in the existence of UFOs. The most common of these stative verbs are: verbs of existing or being be, consist of, contain, exist verbs of possessing belong to, have (= own), include, lack, own, possess verbs of feeling or wanting adore, desire, despise, detest, dislike, envy, hate, like, love, need, pity, prefer, trust, want, wish verbs of the mind (thinking or believing) believe, doubt, expect, feel (= think), forget, imagine, intend, know, realise, recognise, remember, see (= understand), suppose, think, understand verbs of appearance appear, resemble, seem verbs of the senses (when they refer to an involuntary action) see, hear, feel, smell, taste other verbs concern, depend, deserve, fit, matter, measure, mean, mind, weigh It is possible to use many of these verbs in the continuous, but the verb either has a different meaning or expresses a temporary action: → Mary’s having a shower. (= taking) → Harry’s being very kind today. Do you think he wants something? (= behaving) → I’m thinking of contributing to Oxfam. (= considering) Teacher Muriel EFL6 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference PRESENT PERFECT SIIMPLE OR SIIMPLE PAST USE Many languages have a past tense to refer to past time, and a present tense to refer to present tense. English has these, too, but it also has the Present perfect, which relates past actions to the present. The use of the Simple Past roots an action in the past, with no explicit connection to the present. When we hear or read a verb in the Past Simple, we want to know When? The use of the Present Perfect always has a link with the present. When we come across a verb in the Present Perfect, we want to know How does this affect the situation now? Hence, we use the Simple Past to talk about a single past finished action or situation → Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 BC. to talk about actions which happened at the same time or repeated actions → When we got to the junction I took the left turn while Micky took the right. for sequences of actions → Silverman ran to the car, jumped in and raced off into the night. to describe states in the past → We lived just outside Oxford in the nineties, but we didn’t have a car. with when, ago, yesterday, last month, in 1964... → He was born in 1964. The Present Perfect is used to talk about a period from the past until now → I’ve lived here for the past 25 years. to refer to indefinite time → I’ve been to Eurodisney twice. to talk about the present result of a past action → She’s broken her arm. with ‘it’s the first /second... time’ → It’s the first time he has driven a car. with today/this morning... when these periods are not finished → I haven’t seen Tom this morning yet. Have you? 22 Teacher Muriel EFL7 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference PRESENT PERFECT SIIMPLE OR CONTIINUOUS USE The Present Perfect Simple is used to talk about states that started in the past and are still continuing in the present → The manor house has stood on this spot for over 200 years. to talk about actions which happened in the past but may happen again in the future; the period of time in which the action took place is unfinished → I’ve only been to Hong Kong once but I’d love to go again. → J.K. Rowling has written seven Harry Potter books. (BUT Agatha Christie wrote a huge number of thrillers.) after superlatives → Many people consider Kennedy to be the greatest president the USA has had. to talk about an action completed in the past but which has some relevance to the present, e.g. there is a present result → The avalanche has devastated the skiing industry in the area. when the time is indefinite, i.e. when no time is stated → Ms Brown has arrived. She’s in the staff room and is ready to see you now. to introduce a story in news broadcasts and reports, before moving into past tenses → Former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere has died at the age of 77 in a London hospital. He came to London in... The Present Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an ongoing state or action which began in the past and is still continuing or has just finished → Women have been speaking out on the issue for some time, with mixed results. to focus on the duration of an action (not on the result) → I’ve been learning how to play chess. to explain a present result; the focus is on the activity rather than the result → This test result is much better. It’s clear you’ve been revising. 33 Teacher Muriel EFL8 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r You can use the Continuous or Simple with some verbs (live, work, rain, snow...) → How long have you been working/worked here? for actions repeated over a long time → I’ve been collecting/I’ve collected stamps since I was a child. Teacher Muriel EFL9 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference NARRATIIVE TENSES: PAST AND PAST PERFECT SIIMPLE AND CONTIINUOUS PAST NOW decided fell in love left 2 centuries ago had been fighting had been declining had fallen were enjoying King Menelaus of Sparta decided to have a party to make peace with King Priam of Troy. For the previous few centuries, the two kings had been fighting, trade had been declining and many cities had fallen into ruins. Now, the two kings were looking forward to a better future. But at the party, Priam’s son Paris fell in love with Menelaus’s beautiful wife Helen. While the guests were enjoying the feast, they left the party together. USE The Past Perfect Simple is used to describe an action which is completed before a time in the past. → By the time the UN task force arrived, the rebel forces had taken the province. to describe a state which existed before a past event → At the time of her trial last year Hinkley had been in prison for eight months. to make a sequence of events clear; we use the Past Perfect for the earlier action and the Simple Past for the later → When we got back, the babysitter had gone home. We don’t usually use the Past Perfect if the sequence is obvious. The Past Perfect Continuous is used to describe an ongoing situation or action which continued, or stopped just before, a time in the past) → He’d been working for over an hour before the auditors turned up. to explain a past result → The few survivors looked painfully thin. They had been living on meagre rations since the accident. 44 Teacher Muriel EFL10 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r to focus on duration → Kubrick had been trying to get the film made for more than twenty years. The Past Continuous is used to express an activity in progress before and probably after a time in the past → We didn’t hear the intruder because we were sleeping on the top floor that night. to show that a past action was temporary, or was changing or developing → During my training I was earning a lot less than my wife. → His symptoms were becoming more pronounced each day. to describe an ongoing action which forms the background or setting to past events; we often use the Past Simple for an action that happened against this background → Darkness was descending over the hushed city as James staggered back to college. to contrast an ongoing action with a single event which interrupts it → Seventy cars were crossing the bridge when the pier collapsed into the river. for two actions in progress at the same time → We were watching the sky and listening for the first sounds of the dawn chorus. to emphasize that repeated actions took place over a temporary and limited period of finished time → For the first three months she was receiving chemotherapy on a weekly basis. (BUT: She received chemotherapy on a weekly basis.) The Past Simple is used to talk about a single past finished action or situation → Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 BC. to talk about actions which happened at the same time or repeated actions → When we got to the junction I took the left turn while Micky took the right. for sequences of actions → Silverman ran to the car, jumped in and raced off into the night. to describe states in the past → We lived just outside Oxford in the nineties, but we didn’t have a car. with when, ago, yesterday, last month, in 1964... → He was born in 1964. Teacher Muriel EFL11 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference FUTURE TENSES USE There is no one future tense in English. Instead, there are several verb forms that can refer to future time. Sometimes, several forms are possible to express a similar meaning, but not always. will is used to talk about predictions which are based on guesswork, analysis or judgment → We’ll still be here in 20 years. to predict an event which we think will happen because similar events have happened in the past → The laptop battery will give you about 2 hours’ continuous use.. to talk about a decision made at the time of speaking. → I'll phone you back in a minute. to express statements of fact about the future → Next week I’ll be 21. We can use shall/shan’t with I and we, although this is becoming dated now. going to is used to make a prediction, especially if there is evidence in the present to justify the prediction. → Look at the sky! It's going to be a lovely day. → It is possible to use will with present evidence, but we usually use an adverb. → Look at the sky. it will probably rain. for intention (i.e. for actions that have already been decided on). → He is going to study environmental law next year. The Present Continuous is used to describe an event in the future which has already been arranged by the time of speaking → We’re seeing a musical at the theatre next week. (= We’ve got the tickets) 55 Teacher Muriel EFL12 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Compare: We’re going to see a musical at the theatre sometime next week. (= not arranged yet, the focus is on our intention) for future events which involve other people and where we have made some form of commitment OR arrangements that don’t involve other people but can be seen as an arrangement you make with yourself → I’m staying in tonight. I’ve got loads of paperwork to do.(= I don’t want to stay in.) for impersonal plans. → Computer City has announced that it is opening four new shops next month. The Present Continuous is not used to refer to events that people can't control. → It's going to rain this afternoon.*It's raining this afternoon. → It will snow tomorrow. → The sun rises at 5.30 tomorrow.*The sun is rising. The Present Simple is used to talk about timetabled events. → The tour departs on October 11th for 15 days and costs £495. in subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions such as if, when, before, as soon as, unless, etc. → Effective penal reform will not be achieved until the government takes it seriously. The Future Continuous is used for a temporary action in progress at a particular point in the future → I’m going on holiday next Saturday. This time next week I’ll be lying on the beach. to make a prediction about something we believe to be the case now → You can’t interrupt her now. She’ll be getting ready to go on stage, won’t she? to talk about events that are a result of or part of an arrangement made in the past → Trains won’t be running between East Putney and Putney Bridge this weekend due to essential track repairs. for future events we see as certain because they are part of a routine, esp. when the event continues for a period of time, e.g. a festival/meeting. Teacher Muriel EFL13 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r → Winston will be performing with his steel band every night of the music festival. → We’ll be having our weekly meeting tomorrow so I’ll present your proposal then. to say that an event is inevitable → I’ll be seeing Mr Kennedy at the court tomorrow – he’s always there on Thursdays – so we can discuss your case briefly then. as a tactful way of asking about someone’s plans or refusing an invitation → Will you be staying long? → I’m sorry. I can’t come to your wedding as I’ll be working on that day. The Future Perfect is used to make predictions actions which we expect to be completed by a particular time in the future → He’ll have had the operation by May and should be a lot fitter then. The Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an action which is still ongoing at a point in the future, to focus on the duration of the action → We’ll have been living in this house for 20 years in December. be to is used in formal English to talk about official arrangements in the future; this is common in writing, esp. in news articles → The President is to hold an official reception for the visitors. for formal commands and instructions → You are not to disturb the head teacher while the inspectors are here next week. in if-clauses when we wish to say that the event in the if-clause is dependent on the event in the main clause happening first → If British tennis is to reach world standard again, both more money and more commitment will be necessary. be due to is used to talk about an event that we intend or expect to happen in the near future. the event may or may not be planned, but often evidence in the present indicates that it will happen. → Hurry up, the driver says he can’t wait any longer. He’s about to leave without us. Teacher Muriel EFL14 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference CONDIITIIONALS II – IIII -IIIIII If-structures or conditional sentences usually have two clauses. The if-clause can come first or second. When the if-clause is first, we need a comma at the end of the clause. If-clause main clause 0 conditional Present tense (Simple Present, Present Continuous, Present Perfect) Present tense (Simple Present, Present Continuous, Present Perfect) conditional I Present tense (Simple Present, Present Continuous, Present Perfect) future tense (will, going to, present continuous, imperative) conditional II Past tense (Simple Past, Past Continuous) would/might + infinitive conditional III Past Perfect would/might have + past participle mixed conditional A Past tense (Simple Past, Past Continuous) would/might have + past participle mixed conditional B Past Perfect would/might + infinitive USE 0 or general conditional is used to talk about events or situations that can occur at any time, and often occur more than once, and their results → If I eat dairy products, I get red spots on my skin. to talk about actions which always have the same result → If you use a very hot iron on nylon, it melts. Conditional I is used to describe possible future events or situations and their results → The bank will be starting a recruitment drive if it receives head office approval. We don't usually use if...will in conditional sentences. However, it is possible when we want to talk about a result of something in the main clause 66 Teacher Muriel EFL15 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r → Open a window if it will help you to sleep. We also use if... will in requests → If you will take your seats, ladies and gentlemen, we can begin the meeting. Conditional II is used to describe an improbable future event or situation → If the result of the test were positive, we would call you within two days. to describe a hypothetical current situation or event, i.e. one which is contrary to known facts. It is therefore impossible to fulfil the condition. → If the police were confident of their case against Sykes, surely they wouldn’t hesitate to take him into custody? to give advice → If I were you, I’d buy a good English-English dictionary. With the verb BE in the if-clause, we usually use the subjunctive were for all persons. You may hear English speakers using was. It is becoming accepted today, but you should not use it in formal situations. → If the programmer were/(was) familiar with this language, it would be an easy job. We can use should + infinitive or were to + infinitive to emphasize that the condition is unlikely to happen → If the printer should break down within the first year, we would repair it at our expense.(= Should the printer...: more formal) → If you were to listen more carefully, you might understand a little more. (=Were you to listen... : more formal) Conditional III is used to describe a hypothetical situation or event in the past. The past situation or event is contrary to known facts, i.e. it is an unreal or impossible situation. → I would have used your builder if I had managed to contact him. to express criticism → If you’d been driving more slowly, you could have stopped in time. We can put the auxiliary had before the subject to create a more literary style Teacher Muriel EFL16 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r → Had the film been released in the summer, it would not have been so successful. The tense usage with I wish, if only, I’d rather is similar to the second and third conditionals. → I wish it would stop raining. → If only you hadn’t said that! → I’d rather you didn’t smoke. Mixed conditional A is used to describe a hypothetical situation or event in the present, which is contrary to known facts. The result in the main clause refers to the past. → If the island were still a tourist attraction, last week’s earthquake would have caused far more deaths. Mixed conditional B is used to describe a hypothetical situation or event in the past, which is contrary to known facts. The result in the main clause refers to the present. → If Fleming hadn’t discovered penicillin, there would be far more fatalities every year than there actually are. Alternatives to if: Conditional I unless = if ... not providing/provided (that) as/so long as on (the) condition (that) = only if ... Conditional II/III but for = if it hadn’t been for ... suppose in case (of) whether ... or not → Unless you’ve got a doctor’s note to say you’ve passed the medical, they won’t allow you to go on the activity holiday. BUT: You’d be happier if you didn’t have such high expectations. (in this case it is not possible to use unless!) → They would have all perished, but for the quick thinking of the driver. → They’ll deliver the furniture whether there’s someone to receive it or not. Teacher Muriel EFL17 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference REPORTED SPEECH Reported or indirect speech is used to tell what somebody said or thought. If the introductory verb is in the past tense, make the tense of the other verb(s) go back one step further into the past. DIRECT SPEECH She says that ... INDIRECT SPEECH She said that ... Simple Present do Simple Past did Present Continuous am/is/are doing Past Continuous was/were doing Present Perfect has/have done Past Perfect had done Present Perfect Continuous has/have been doing Past Perfect Continuous had been doing Simple Past did Past Perfect had done Past Continuous was/were doing Past Perfect Continuous had been doing Past Perfect had done Past Perfect had done Past Perfect Continuous had been doing Past Perfect Continuous had been doing modal verbs will may can must/have to mustn’t should would might could must/had to mustn’t/wasn’t to should have Apart from the verb, there are a number of other changes: subject and object pronouns change → ‘I’ll give it to you soon.’ He said he would give it to me soon. references to particular times and places change → Alex said: ‘I’ll meet you here again tomorrow at 3.30.’. Alex said she would meet us there again the next day at 3.30. 77 Teacher Muriel EFL18 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r now then today that day tomorrow the next day yesterday the day before last Monday the last/previous Monday here there word order changes → ‘What are you doing at the weekend?’ He asked me what we were doing at the weekend. if/whether are used when reporting yes/no-questions → ‘Did you enjoy the film?’ He asked me whether I had enjoyed the film. Common introductory verbs: indirect statements say, tell, add, continue, answer, reply, mention, remark, think, decide, imagine... reported questions ask, want to know, enquire, wonder indirect commands tell, order, command, forbid indirect requests ask, beg, urge Teacher Muriel EFL19 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference MODAL VERBS Modal verbs express ideas such as willingness and ability, permission and refusal, obligation and prohibition, suggestion, necessity, promise and intention. All modal verbs can express degrees of certainty, probability or possibility. They have several characteristics in common: there is no –s in the 3rd person singular → He can swim. there is no do/does in the question → May I ask a question? there is no don’t/doesn’t in the negative → You shouldn’t tell lies. they are followed by an infinitive without to (exception: ought to) → It might rain. → We ought to be on our way. they don’t have all forms of a full verb; other verbs are used instead → I’d love to be able to ski. (I’d love to can...) → I hate having to get up in the morning.( I hate musting...) → I had to work hard when I was young. (I must...) they can be used with perfect infinitives to refer to the past → You should have told me that you can’t swim. USE Probability modals in order of certainty (from most certain to least certain) will/won’t is used to predict a future action; the truth or certainty of what is asserted is more or less taken for granted → His latest book will be out next month. to express what we believe or guess to be true about the present; they indicate an assumption based on our knowledge of people and things → Leave the meat in the oven. It won’t be cooked yet. 88 Teacher Muriel EFL20 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r must/can’t is used for a logical conclusion (‘from the evidence I’m sure this is true’); we don’t have all the facts, so it is less certain than will. The negative is can’t. → You must be joking! I simply don’t believe you. → She can’t have a ten-year-old daughter. She’s only ten herself. Should is used to express what may reasonably be expected to happen; this use has the idea of if everything has gone according to plan → Our guest should be here soon (if they haven’t got lost). → This homework shouldn’t take you too long (if you’ve understood what you have to do). to express the idea that we want the action to happen; it is not used to express negative or unpleasant ideas → You should pass the exam. You’ve worked hard. (You should fail the exam.) may/might is used to express the possibility that an event will happen or is happening; might is more tentative and slightly less certain than may. → We may go to Greece this year. We haven’t decided yet. → It might rain. Take your umbrella. May and might are used widely by native speakers instead of maybe and perhaps. could is used with a meaning similar to might; couldn’t is not used to express future possibility. Instead we use might not. → You could be right. I’m not sure. → The film might not be any good. Modals expressing obligation and advice must is used to express strong obligation (opinion of the speaker); the missing verb forms are provided by have to → Teacher to student: ‘You must do this again.’ → I hate having to get up early. in a more formal, written style → Candidates must answer three questions. (on an exam paper) Teacher Muriel EFL21 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r have to is used to express a general obligation based on a law or rule, or based on the authority of another person → Children in Belgium have to go to school until they’re 18. → Mum says you have to tidy your room. have got to is common in informal British English. → I’ve got to go now. Bye! mustn’t is used to express negative obligation (= prohibition) → You mustn’t steal. It’s very naughty. don’t have to is used to express absence of obligation → You don’t have to go to England if you want to learn English. should/ought to are used to express mild obligation and advice (= it’s a good idea to...) → You should go to bed. You look very tired. had better is used (especially in spoken English) to say that we think it would be sensible or advisable to so something; it cannot be used to talk about the past or to make general comments → If you’re not well, you’d better ask Ann to go instead. → I don’t think parents should give their children sweets. (... parents had better give ...) Permission may is used to ask for permission → May I ask you a question? to give permission, but it sounds very formal → You may kiss your bride. can/could is used to ask for permission → Can/could I borrow your car tonight? to give permission (more common than may) → You can’t use a dictionary in this exam. Teacher Muriel EFL22 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r to talk about permission in general or in the past (also be allowed to) → Children can do what they want these days. → I wasn’t allowed to go out on my own until I was 16. Ability can/could is used to express ability → I can speak five languages. → He could swim when he was three. (= general ability) was/were able to (also: managed to) is used to express a fulfilled ability on one particular occasion in the past → She couldn’t swim, but she was able to reach the other bank of the river. → The prisoner managed to escape by climbing onto the roof. Teacher Muriel EFL23 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference RELATIIVE CLAUSES USE It is important to understand the difference between two kinds of relative clauses: Defining relative clauses tell us exactly which person, thing, etc. the writer or speaker is talking about. These are more common in the spoken language. When we speak, there is no pause, and we do not use commas when we write. Non-defining relative clauses add extra non-essential information, almost as an afterthought. These are typical of written English, particularly stories and more formal types of writing. In defining relative clauses we don’t use commas. We can leave out the relative pronoun if it is the object of the relative clause. → Last week I saw the film you made at college. We can refer to the whole previous clause with which. → She arrived on time, which amazed everybody. That is preferred after superlatives and words such as all, every(thing), some(thing), any(thing) and only, and after it is... That is the funniest film that was ever made. It is a film that will be very popular. Where we put the preposition depends on formality: informal → Have you seen the little case that/which I keep my contact lenses in? formal → This system provides a case in which the contact lenses can be kept. → The people to whom this report is addressed will have to consider carefully the consequences of the proposed cuts. We often reduce a relative clause, i.e. we shorten it by omitting the pronoun and verb. We can do this with a participle phrase → Marilyn was the woman living in the flat underneath us at the time. (= who was living...) 99 Teacher Muriel EFL24 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r → The clauses struck out of the agreement were all unimportant. (= which were struck out...) with an infinitive phrase → Newton was the first person to really understand the laws of gravity. (= who really understood...) We often use modifiers, such as all of and many of before which or whom in a non-defining relative clause to refer to the subject or object of a clause → The college entered over a hundred students for the exam, all of whom passed. → We interviewed fourteen applicants for the post, none of whom we thought suitable. In defining relative clauses we can modify the pronoun or adverb with –ever to give the meaning of anything, anyone, anywhere, etc. → I’d like to meet whoever did that to the garden hedge! → Use whichever phone you want – they all have outside lines. Teacher Muriel EFL25 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r whom is formal and we rarely use it in speech; we now mainly use it after prepositions we can use that to refer to people or objects, but we usually prefer who for a person when the pronoun is the subject of the relative clauseGrammar practice Teacher Muriel EFL26 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r PARTIICIIPLE AND IINFIINIITIIVE PHRASES Infinitive phrases are used to talk about purpose and after superlatives and other expressions. Participle phrases can be used to give extra information or to describe the result, cause or time of the information in the main clause. we use an -ing clause instead of a defining relative clause with an active verb → The man driving the bus (= the man who drives) is my brother. we use a past participle or being + past participle instead of a defining relative clause with a passive verb → The book published last week (= the book that was published) is his first written for children. → The boys being chosen (= the boys who are being chosen) for the team are under 9. We cannot use an -ing clause when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause The man who Tim is meeting for lunch is from India. when the event or action talked about in the defining relative clause comes before the event or action talked about in the rest of the sentence, except when the second event/action is the result of the first → The snow which fell overnight has turned to ice. (the snow falling...) → The snow falling overnight (= the snow which fell) has caused traffic chaos. when we talk about a single, completed action in the defining relative clause → The girl who fell over on the ice broke her arm. (the girl falling over...) → I pulled off the sheets covering the furniture (= which covered) We cannot use a past participle when there is a noun between the relative pronoun and the verb in the defining relative clause → The speed at which decisions are made in this country is worrying. when the defining relative clause includes a modal verb other than will → There are a number of people who should be asked. (...people should be asked) 1100 Teacher Muriel EFL27 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r Grammar reference POSIITIION OF ADVERBS The position of an adverb depends on its meaning and the word or phrase it is modifying. It is a very complex matter and the following rules are just provided as a first step. Fixed position: adverbs that modify adjectives, other adverbs, noun phrases, numbers and prepositional phrases usually come before the word they modify I thought his answers were pretty good on the whole. The French team did really well in the first round. His news came as quite a shock. In our school roughly fifty students have no mobile phone. Front position: connecting adverbs and time adverbs (if the adverb is not the main focus of the message): nevertheless, then, ... → One cannot safely assume from the absence of such notice that it is permissible to copy the software. Nevertheless, there are probably tens of thousands of software programs that are in the public domain. time adverbs (if the adverb is not the main focus of the message): tomorrow, last year, ... → I’ve been incredibly busy this week. Yesterday I worked more than 12 hours. comment and viewpoint adverbs: presumably, financially, ... → She has just heard that her sister is ill. Presumably, she will want to go home. Mid position (before the main verb) adverbs of certainty: probably, definitely, ... → You’ll probably be gone by the time I get back. adverbs of degree: absolutely, hardly, quite, rather, ... → For men who've seen so much they'd rather forget, this at least, was a day to remember. focus adverbs: just, even ... → "Our fathers were no criminals, they just obeyed orders," a young boy said in a discussion. frequency adverbs: always, never, generally... → Sea eagles have occasionally been seen around Loch Lomond. 1111 Teacher Muriel EFL28 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r adverbs of comment: stupidly, ignorantly, ... → Shark is another fish that we stupidly ignore. There is nothing quite so satisfying as eating shark while watching Jaws on the telly. adverbs of manner which end in -ly (also in end position): quickly, rudely, ... → In 1868 Buddhism was rudely disestablished and replaced by State Shinto. End position MPT-rule: adverbs of manner (slowly, ...) , place (upstairs, in the corner, ...)and time (this morning, a while ago, ...) come at the end of the sentence in that order (time adverbs can also come at the beginning of the sentence; manner adverbs can come in the middle) → The statue was lifted carefully onto the plinth before the ceremony. Teacher Muriel EFL29 | A d v a n c e d G r a m m a r P r a c t i c e CONTENTS SURVEY OF TENSES ............................................................................................................................ 1 REVISION OF TENSES .......................................................................................................................... 4 PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE OR SIMPLE PAST ....................................................................................... 6 PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS ...................................................................................... 7 NARRATIVE TENSES: PAST AND PAST PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS........................................ 9 FUTURE TENSES ............................................................................................................................... 11 CONDITIONALS I – II -III ................................................................................................................... 14 REPORTED SPEECH ........................................................................................................................... 17 MODAL VERBS ................................................................................................................................ 19 RELATIVE CLAUSES ........................................................................................................................... 23 PARTICIPLE AND INFINITIVE PHRASES .............................................................................................. 26 POSITION OF ADVERBS .................................................................................................................... 27 Contents ......................................................................................................................................... 29 Teacher Muriel EFL