Human Development Across the Life Span

Lifespan and DevelopmentPart I : Lifespan and DevelopmentPart I AP Psychology

Childhood and Stages of Development : Childhood and Stages of Development Prenatal Development Sex of Child-23rd pair of chromosomes X Chromosome Mother or father, females have 2, males have one X and one Y Y Chromosome Father, paired with X to form a male Stimulates development of male sex organ by Testosterone Most important male sex hormone, but females have it too

Genes: Their Location and Composition : Genes: Their Location and Composition

Slide 4 : Genes: Their Location and Composition

Zygotes : Zygotes Fertilized eggs Less than half survive past 2 weeks After 10 days zygote attaches to mother’s uterine wall forms placenta for nourishment becomes an embryo

Embryo : Embryo Developing human from 2 weeks to second month

Fetus : Fetus After 2 months Embryo looks more human and we call it a fetus 2 Months to Birth Developing Fetus hears muffled version of mother’s voice and prefers it after birth

Teratogens : Teratogens Agents that can harm embryo/fetus during prenatal stage Chemical, viral, etc… Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs Heroin Cocaine Over the counter/prescriptions Alcohol

Teratogens: Tobacco : Teratogens: Tobacco Reduces flow of oxygen and nutrients to the fetus Problems: Miscarriage, stillbirth, premature birth, SIDS risk, cognitive development, ADD

Teratogens: Heroin : Teratogens: Heroin Babies born addicted and have high risk of early death (premature, defects, respiratory, etc…)

Teratogens: Cocaine : Teratogens: Cocaine Increased risk of birth complications and cognitive deficits and defects (seen in childhood)

Teratogens: Over the Counter and Prescription Drugs : Teratogens: Over the Counter and Prescription Drugs Various developmental complications

Teratogens: Alcohol : Teratogens: Alcohol Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Inborn complications caused by alcohol effects Problems: Microcephaly (small head)heart defects Irritability Hyperactivity Delayed mental and motor development Mental retardation Depression Suicide Criminal behavior Social Drinking Issues: IQ Reaction time Motor skills Attention span Math skills Impulsivity Social Delinquent problems

Maternal Malnutrition : Maternal Malnutrition Increases the risk of birth complications and neurological defects for the newborn Major problem in underdeveloped nations Linked to disorders such as schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders in adolescence and adulthood. Low birth weight- linked to heart disease and diabetes

Maternal Illness : Maternal Illness Fetus is vulnerable to disease and viruses Placenta screens out most disease but isn’t full proof Diseases that can get through Severe cases of the flu, STD’s, cholera, smallpox, mumps, AIDS Genital herpes AIDS

Genital Herpes : Genital Herpes Transferred at birth and can cause many problems such as: Brain damage (fatal at this sage) Blindness Deafness Microcephaly paralysis

AIDS : AIDS Transferred through placenta, birthing process, or breastfeeding (20-30% are transferred)

Prenatal Health Care : Prenatal Health Care Appropriate medical care prevents these issues The main cause of low-income group infant mortality rate is a lack of quality health care

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT : MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Rooting Reflex Reflex, when touched on cheek, to open mouth and find food Cephalocaudal trend Head-to-foot direction of motor development Upper body control before lower body (crawling) Proximodistal trend The center-outward direction of motor development Torso control before extremities (reaching with body, not extremities)

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT : MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Maturation Biological growth processes that enable orderly change in behavior Could be influenced by experiences Sets the basic course of developmental and experience adjust it Lack of neuron connections is the reason why earliest memories rarely earlier than third birthday Experiences help develop neural connections Rosenzweig and Krech Rat Study Solitary confinement vs. playground

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT : MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Plasticity Brain ability to reorganize pathways to compensate damage Laser damage in cats eye study Children’s brains are the most plastic because a Surplus of neurons When neurons are destroyed, nearby ones may partly compensate by making new connections Experience influences motor behavior

2 Types of Developmental Studies : 2 Types of Developmental Studies Longitudinal Design Study of participant (s) over a long period of time Cross-sectional Design Comparison of different groups of different ages at a single point in time

Social Development: Object Permanence and Stranger Anxiety : Social Development: Object Permanence and Stranger Anxiety Infants develop intense bonds with caregiver and prefers familiar faces and voices Object permanence- infant recognizes object/person and thinks it has disappeared when not visible After object permanence infant develops stranger anxiety Fear of strangers commonly displayed after 8 months of age

Social Development: Attachment and Separation Anxiety : Social Development: Attachment and Separation Anxiety Attachment Emotional tie with another person Shown by child seeking closeness to caregiver Those who are comfortable, familiar, and responsive to needs And by distress when separated Separation anxiety Separation Anxiety Opposite of stranger anxiety When separated from those who are familiar, infant becomes distressed

Social Development: Harlowe’s Monkey Studies : Social Development: Harlowe’s Monkey Studies Harry Harlow bred monkeys and separated them from their mothers Kept blanket in cage Monkey formed intense attachment to cloth Distressed when separated Artificial mothers One cloth, one wire Monkeys prefer cloth mother RESULTS: BODY CONTACT IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN NOURISHMENT

Social Development: Critical Period : Social Development: Critical Period Optimal period shortly after birth when baby’s exposure to certain stimuli Experience produces proper development First moving object a duckling sees is its mother and it follow it Developmental psychologists believe humans don’t have precise critical period Imprinting Process by which certain animals form attachment during critical period Humans don’t imprint, but become attached to what they know Temperament

Temperament : Temperament Persons characteristic emotional reactively and intensity that endures through a lifetime Heredity Predisposes human differences Anxious infants have high heart rates and reactive nervous systems Identical twins more likely to have similar temperaments than non-identical Sensitive, responsive mothers have infants who are securely attached and opposite produces insecure babies Anxiety over separation from parents peak at 13 months and gradually declines after that

Temperament : Temperament Erikson securely attached children approach life with a basic sense of trust Basic Trust Sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy Deprivation of attachment studies Self Concept Sense of one’s identity and personal worth Children’s view of themselves affect their actions

Child Rearing Practices: 4 Parenting Styles : Child Rearing Practices: 4 Parenting Styles Authoritarian Authoritative Permissive Rejecting-Neglecting

AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS : AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS Impose rules and expect obedience Why? Because I said so!

AUTHORITATIVE PARENTES : AUTHORITATIVE PARENTES Demanding, yet responsive Exert control by both setting rules and explaining reasons Encourages open discussion and allowing exceptions when making rules

PERMISSIVE PARENTS : PERMISSIVE PARENTS Submit to children’s desires Make few demands Use little punishment

REJECTING-NEGLECTING PARENTS : REJECTING-NEGLECTING PARENTS Disengage Expect little Invest little

Which parenting style is optimal? : Which parenting style is optimal? Children of authoritative parents have the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence Authoritative parenting seems to give children greatest sense of control which yields motivation and self confidence

GENDER : GENDER Gender Identity One’s sense of being male or female Gender Typing Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role Social Learning Theory social behavior learned by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished Gender Schema Theory Children learn from their cultures concept of male/female roles and adjust behavior accordingly Genes and Experience Intertwine We are the product of interaction between nature and nurture

Slide 36 : Gender Role Development Between ages 2-3 years, children can identify themselves and other children as boys or girls. The concept of gender or sex, however is based more on outward characteristics such as clothing. Toddler girls tend to play more with dolls and ask for help more than boys Toddler boys tend to play more with trucks and wagons, and tend to play more actively After age 3 years we see consistent gender differences in preferred toys and activities

The Nature and Nurture of Gender : The Nature and Nurture of Gender Gender and Culture

The Nature and Nurture of Gender : The Nature and Nurture of Gender

The Nature and Nurture of Gender : The Nature and Nurture of Gender Social Learning Theory theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Gender Schema Theory theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

Slide 40 : Gender Schema Theory Gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity An example of how a child forms a schema associated with gender. A girl is offered a choice of 4 toys to play with.

The Nature and Nurture of Gender : The Nature and Nurture of Gender Two theories of gender typing

Slide 42 : Gender Concepts Originally, gender referred to what society viewed as appropriate for males and females. Now, gender can refer to the sex of the person. Gender Identity Gender Roles Gender Gender Stereotypes Click a button for more information.

Slide 43 : Gender Concepts A person’s perception of being male or female Gender Identity Gender Roles Gender Gender Stereotypes Click a button for more information.

Slide 44 : Gender Concepts Widely-held, often inaccurate beliefs about ability and personality traits based on sex Gender Identity Gender Roles Gender Gender Stereotypes Click a button for more information.

Slide 45 : Gender Concepts Culturally-defined roles for males and females Gender Identity Gender Roles Gender Gender Stereotypes Click a button for more information.

Slide 46 : The Role of Hormones Hormones are chemicals that control bodily responses such as emotions, growth, and sexuality. Males have more androgen. Females have more estrogen. Hormones play a lesser role in human development and behavior than they do in animals. The sex hormones are estrogen and androgen.

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Slide 48 : Male/Female Differences The only activity that is clearly defined along gender lines is reproduction. All other activities are shared by both sexes to different degrees. Nurturance: Women generally show more empathy, but males can also be nurturing. No one has proven the existence of strong maternal instinct in humans.

Slide 49 : Physical activity: Boys start out more physically active. By adulthood, differences in activity levels between genders have disappeared. Aggression: Males are aggressive in more situations than females. Females do show aggression in some situations, however.

Slide 50 : Males and females are very close in overall intellectual abilities. Intelligence Spatial Skills Skills involving the ability to imagine how objects would look when moved about in space. Males generally do better though social role, social class, ethnic background, and the type of test given also play roles.

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Slide 52 : 2+ 2 Mathematical Ability Studies are not clear and have not as yet conclusively shown that males are innately better at math. Males do better than females on the SAT math section, but study findings have not been consistent. Teachers and parents have higher expectations for males. Females may avoid difficult areas such as math. 368 x 42

Slide 53 : Verbal Ability Includes not just speaking but also word problems, reading and writing. Generally, girls do better than males until early adolescence.

Slide 54 : #1 Social Factors Self-Confidence In adolescence, females’ confidence often declines (concerned with how boys will react to them?). The loss of confidence is highest in whites and Hispanics and lowest in African Americans. Overall, studies have not found major differences in self-confidence levels between males and females.

Slide 55 : Friendships Boys’ groups usually have a leader, girls have more equal status in groups. Boys usually issue orders and demands while girls make more suggestions. Adult females tend to have a best friend of the same sex while males do not. Adult females have a few close friends while males have a larger number of male acquaintances. Females initiate most breakups.

Slide 56 : Communication Men Women Talk more and interrupt more Touch more Are the ones being touched Disclose more about themselves Talk less and interrupt less Disclose less about self Boys sit next to one another Girls sit facing one another Males offer solutions to problems Girls share similar stories

Slide 57 : Selecting a Mate Overall, the top eight characteristics for potential mate selection are: 1. Social Status 2. Economic Status 3. Physical Attractiveness 4. Personality 5. Intelligence 6. Ambition 7. Character 8. Sense of Humor

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Slide 59 : Gender Role Behavior Gender role behaviors reflect what society says are appropriate actions for males and females. Through identification with a parent of the same sex, people learn how to behave appropriately. Which jobs are appropriate for males? for females?

Slide 60 : Fathers who are very warm toward daughters tend to produce mild tomboyishness in girls. Boys whose fathers were absent during preschool years tend to be less aggressive and not as active in sports. People who are considered mentally healthy tend not to have excessive masculine or feminine qualities. Children tend to identify with the dominant parent in the household, even across sex lines. Gender studies have shown

Slide 61 : Fathers are more determined that appropriate activities are given to young male children. People handle babies differently depending on whether they are identified as male or female. People will assign different characteristics to babies when they are identified as male or female.

Slide 62 : Mixing Gender Roles Rigid extremes for gender roles for males and females restrict the full range of human behaviors and emotions. Androgynous people are high in male and female characteristics. Androgynous behavior can lead to more flexibility and willingness to share characteristics of members of the opposite sex.

Slide 63 : Gender-Busting Communication Hints (for Males) 1. Do you frequently interrupt females while they are speaking? Try to break the habit. 2. Avoid answering questions with “Nope”and “Yep.” Try to explain more and give some details why you did something. 3. Try to open up on personal issues. 4. Ask for help if you need it. Can you tell me how to get to . . .?

Slide 64 : 1. Look people directly in the eye. 2. If men interrupt conversations, assertively direct the conversation back. 3. Do not over-apologize for your behaviors. 4. Talk more often about current events, less about people. Gender-Busting Communication Hints (for Females)

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT : STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (PERSONALITY) ERIKSON PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (PERSONALITY) PIAGET STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT KOHLBERG STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

FREUD’S Psychosexual Stages of Development : FREUD’S Psychosexual Stages of Development Based on unconscious/conscious and ID, Ego, Superego Stages- Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

Oral : Oral 0-18 months Mouth Pleasure that comes from sucking, biting and chewing

Anal : Anal 18-36 Months Bowel and Bladder Pleasure that comes from defecating and urinating Freud describes this as a way for the child to control something

Phallic : Phallic 3-6 Years Genitalia Pleasure that comes from playing with the genitals Incestuous sexual feelings: Oedipus and Electra Complex Penus Envy Later on Anna Freud termed ‘womb envy’

Latency : Latency 6-Puberty Sexual feelings are dormant

Genital : Genital Puberty on Maturation of sexual interests

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development : Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development Erik Homburger (adopted father) About coming through experiences and conflicts and how subject fairs through it all This is called the psychosocial crisis Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Self Absorption Integrity vs. Despair

Trust vs. Mistrust : Trust vs. Mistrust Infant depends completely on caregiver Needs met & positive attachments formed: optimistic and trusting in the world If not, distrusting of others and pessimistic

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt : Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet training and behavior training Self-sufficiency is result of learning in a positive environment If parents are overly critical the child develops shame, unworthiness, not good enough complex

Initiative vs. Guilt : Initiative vs. Guilt Experimental time Child steps out and attempts to make decisions on their own that may not be in line with parents ideas Conflict ensues Over controlling parents instill guilt, and low self-esteem in children Supporting parents (not permissive) are able to make decisions without disrespecting or taking away other rights and esteem

Industry (Competence) vs. Inferiority : Industry (Competence) vs. Inferiority Social functioning beyond family If able to handle ups and downs of a less safe environment, child values achievement despite occasional rejection If not able to take pride in accomplishment and achievements the child feels incompetent

Identity vs. Confusion : Identity vs. Confusion Struggle to find a real sense of identity “Who am I outside of my background?” “What makes me different?” “What do I have to contribute to society, God, etc…?” James Marcia’s Four Identity Issues further Erickson’s Identity vs. confusion stage of development

James Marcia’s Four Identity Issues : James Marcia’s Four Identity Issues Identity Achievement Achievement of sense of identity Identity Moratorium Active struggling for sense of identity Identity Foreclosure Unquestioning acceptance of parental or societal value system Identity Diffusion No struggle for identity, not concerned

Intimacy vs. Isolation : Intimacy vs. Isolation Can you be intimately acquainted with others or are you uncomfortable with close relationships? Fear of rejection could lead to isolation, but getting close to others despite fear leads to intimacy Do you feel the reward is worth the risk?

Generativity vs. Self-Absorption : Generativity vs. Self-Absorption Middle adulthood Concern for others of the next generation or bitter to others that are different Generational guidance and empathy or self-centered, selfishness

Integrity vs. Despair : Integrity vs. Despair Retirement years Integrity-acceptance of your life, could have done some things better, but ok with the whole picture, Despair- bitter resentment over wrongs done to you, down and out about mistakes made, focus on all the negative things that happened in life

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development : Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Result of working with Theodore Simon, Binet’s assistant, on intelligence testing Much of his research was done from observations from his own children 4 Stages Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational

Sensorimotor : Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping) Phenomena: object permanence (8 months)- recognizing that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible stranger anxiety

Preoperational : Preoperational 2-6 years Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning Phenomena: Pretend Play Egocentrism Language development

Terms Defined for Preoperational Stage : Terms Defined for Preoperational Stage Conservation- awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance Centration- tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects Irreversibility- inability to envision reversing an action Egocentrism- limited ability to share another person’s viewpoint Animism- belief that all things are living

Concrete Operational : Concrete Operational 7-11 years Thinking logically about concrete events Grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations Phenomena: Conservation mastered Mathematical transformations Decline in egocentrism New problem solving capacities

Defining of terms in Concrete Stage : Defining of terms in Concrete Stage Reversibility- able to mentally undo an action Decentration- focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously

Formal Operational : Formal Operational 12- Adulthood Abstract reasoning- imagined realities or symbols Phenomena: Abstract logic Potential for mature moral reasoning Thought processes- abstract, systematic, logical, and reflective

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development : Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development How do we develop our sense of moral judgment? Focus: process of moral reasoning not just the decision made Three levels are broken down into two stages each for a total of 6 stages Preconventional Conventional Postconventional

Preconventional : Preconventional External Authority: acts are wrong or right based upon punishment or awards Stage 1- Punishment Orientation Stage 2- Naïve reward Orientation Obey to either avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards: “If you don’t feed the dog, he will die” “If you do the dishes, you can have desert”

Conventional : Conventional Rules necessary for maintaining social order, internalization of rules for approval, inflexible, rules, absolute guidelines Stage 3- Good boy/girl orientation Right/Wrong: others approval or disapproval Stage 4- Authority Orientation Right/Wrong: society’s rules and laws, rigid obedience Obey because of laws and rules and do so to gain social approval or maintain social order. “If you steal, everyone would think you are a thief”

Postconventional : Postconventional Personal code of ethics, less rigid acceptance of rules, flexible thinking, it may be ok to disobey rules if conflict with personal values Stage 5- Social Contract Orientation Right/Wrong: society’s rules are viewed as fallible Stage 6- Individual Principles and conscience orientation Right/Wrong: abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice Follow what affirms people’s rights or what One perceives as ethic “If you steal the drugs, you would not have lived up to your own ideal” “Robin Hood is a hero because he stole from the rich”

Slide 93 : Transitional period from childhood to adulthood Extending from puberty to independence Due to improved nutrition, sexual maturation occurs earlier now-a-days Psychologist note that adolescence is often marked by mood swings Adolescence

Slide 94 : Begins with puberty: period of sexual maturation, during which one first becomes capable of reproducing 2-year period of rapid development usually beginning in girls at age 11 and in boys at age 13 Adolescence

Slide 95 : Primary Sex Characteristics Body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary Sex Characteristics Nonreproductive sexual characteristics Female: breasts and hips Male: voice quality and body hair Adolescence

Slide 96 : Although variation in the timing of growth spurt has little effect in height, there are psychological consequences Early maturation for boys Stronger, more athletic, tend to be more popular, self-assured, and independent Early maturation for girls Stressful, negative attention from both sexes, when peers catch up it gets better Adolescence

Slide 97 : Physical abilities peak in early adulthood World-class sprinters and swimmers peak in their teens or early twenties, but decline of abilities is not noticed till later in life Women, because of early maturation, peak earlier than men Foremost sign of biological sign of aging in women is menopause Time of natural cessation of menstruation Refers to biological changes a woman experiences as ability to reproduce declines Adulthood

Slide 98 : Menopause does not usually create psychological problems in women Women’s expectation and attitudes regarding menopause influence its emotional impact Men experience decline in sperm count, testosterone level, etc… With age, eye’s pupil shrinks and lens becomes less transparent- reducing light reaching retina Adulthood

Slide 99 : Disease-fighting immune system weakens- more susceptible to life-threatening disease Due to lifetime collection of antibodies- less suffering of short-term ailments Since early adulthood, small, gradual loss of brain cells But can be compensated by active growth of neural connections in people who remain active Adulthood

Slide 100 : Some suffer brain ailment such as Alzheimer’s disease Progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functions; deterioration of neurons that produce neurotransmitter acetylcholine Adulthood

Slide 101 : Meaningless info: harder for older people to recall Meaningful info: rich web of existing knowledge aid in memory Adulthood

Slide 102 : Cross-Sectional Study Study in which people of different ages are compared with one another Across the age groups Show that younger people do better than older ones overall Longitudinal Study Research in which same people are restudied and retested over long period A group of people for a long time Show that until late in life, intelligence remains stable Adulthood

Slide 103 : Crystallized intelligence One’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills tend to increase with age Fluid Intelligence One’s ability to reason speedily and abstractly tends to decrease with age Types of intelligence explain why mathematicians and scientists produce creative work in early adulthood while those in literature produce best work in late adulthood Adulthood

Slide 104 : Social Clock: culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement 2 basic aspects of lives dominate adulthood: Intimacy (forming close relationships) Generativity (being productive and supporting future generations) Adulthood

Slide 105 : Children are the most enduring of life changes When children leave home, the empty nest is, for most people, a happy place and they report greater happiness and enjoyment of marriage People of all ages report similar levels of happiness and satisfaction with life Teenagers have quick changing range of moods while adults have less extreme, but more enduring moods

Slide 106 : Elisabeth Kubler-Ross proposed that the terminally ill pass through 5 stages (DABDA) DENIAL Unacceptance of illness ANGER OR RESENTMENT Why me? BARAGINING With God DEPRESSION Loss of everything and everyone ACCEPTANCE Peaceful, accepting one’s fate Death and Dying