Human Memory

HUMAN MEMORY : HUMAN MEMORY AP PSYCHOLOGY

Forgetting : Forgetting Forgetting as encoding failure Which penny is the real thing?

BRAIN AND MEMORY : BRAIN AND MEMORY

Hippocampus: Important to LTM : Hippocampus: Important to LTM MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Memory : Memory Memory persistence of learning over time via the encoding, storage and retrieval of information

Memory : Memory Memory as Information Processing Sometimes viewed as similar to a computer write to file- encode save to disk- store read from disk- retrieve

3 Parts of Human Memory : 3 Parts of Human Memory Encoding Forming a memory code Storage Maintaining encoded information into memory over time Retrieval Recovering information from memory stores

Slide 8 : Read the instructions on your piece of paper. Listen carefully to the sentences read to you. Using a scale from 1 to 5, rate each sentence on difficulty or ease DO NOT TALK DURING THIS DEMONSTRATION: we don’t want to bring any extraneous variables into the experiment and skew or invalidate the results DEMONSTRATION 1

What do you think is most effective: memory regarding visual stimuli or memory regarding auditory stimuli? : What do you think is most effective: memory regarding visual stimuli or memory regarding auditory stimuli? Memory recall does not equal intelligence. Acoustic encoding group typically gets from 2-14 correct. Visual encoding group typically gets 12-20 correct.

Slide 10 : VIDEO CLIP DEMONSTRATION 2

Encoding: Forming a Memory Code : Encoding: Forming a Memory Code ATTENTION- focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events SELECTIVE ATTENTION- subjective experience Filter Analogy- Screening system Screens out most stimuli and lets a select few pass through into conscious awareness

Filter Location: When we pay attention to information : Filter Location: When we pay attention to information Early, Late, or Intermediate Big debate Early- during sensory input Sensory input- when information is detected. Late- after brain processes meaning of significance of information Cocktail party analogy So which is it? Scientific research says: both early and late as well as intermediately (somewhere in the middle) Filter is flexible- not fixed.

Difficulties Regarding Attention : Difficulties Regarding Attention Trying to focus on two or more inputs at the same time Larger reductions in memory performance This doesn’t only apply to memory Cars and cell phone

What Do We Encode? : What Do We Encode? Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words Visual Encoding encoding of picture images

Encoding : Encoding

LEVELS OF PROCESSING : LEVELS OF PROCESSING Different levels of verbal processing Craik and Lockhart- Incoming information can be processed at different levels Verbal Processing- people process information at three levels of processing Structural Encoding- shallow, physical structure Phonemically- intermediate level, sound Semantically- deepest, meaningful Levels of Processing Theory Deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes.

Enriching Encoding : Enriching Encoding Elaboration Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding Thinking of examples that illustrate an idea The more examples the better Visual Imagery Creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Some words are easier than others Concrete- juggler Abstract- truth

Paivio Study on Visual Imagery : Paivio Study on Visual Imagery Allen Paivio (1969) Easier to form images for concrete concepts then for abstract ones People had to learn a list of 16 pairs of words and were asked to remember them Based

Dual Coding Theory : Dual Coding Theory Enhancing Memory forming semantic and visual codes Either lead to recall imagery helps memory provides a second kind of memory code 2 codes are better than one

Self-Referent Encoding : Self-Referent Encoding Deciding how or whether information is personally relevant Making information personally meaningful How does it work? Enhances recall by promoting additional elaboration and better organization of information

STORAGE : STORAGE MAINTAINGING INFORMATION IN MEMORY Information processing theories Atkinson and Shiffin Model Most influential of theories Info passes through 2 temporary storage buffers Then moves on to long term memory Sensory Short Term Long Term

SENSORY : SENSORY Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Preserves stimulus in original sensory form Working Memory focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information

Sensory Memory : Sensory Memory Function—holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics Capacity—large can hold many items at once Duration—very brief retention of images .3 sec for visual info 2 sec for auditory info

Sensory Memory : Sensory Memory Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory

SENSORY MEMORY: Visual, Sound and Tactile Imagery : SENSORY MEMORY: Visual, Sound and Tactile Imagery Visual Sparkler After Image Sound Ringing Tactile Hard grasp pressure

VISUAL CODES IN STM : VISUAL CODES IN STM Shepard and Metzler (1971) Pairs of figures Is it possible to rotate the figures to match each other? Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser (1978) Fictitious Map Asked people to memorize map. Took it away and asked questions regarding visual memory. Demo 3

Sensory Memory : Sensory Memory You have to take advantage of sensory storage immediately because it doesn’t last long Sperling Experiment The memory trace in the visual sensory store decays in about ¼ of a second Same in auditory

SHORT TERM MEMORY (STM) : SHORT TERM MEMORY (STM) Short-Term Memory A limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds activated memory that holds a few items briefly look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten

Rehearsal : Rehearsal Process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information Aspects of Rehearsal Durability of storage Capacity of storage STM as working memory

STM: Duration of Storage : STM: Duration of Storage Duration—brief storage (about 20 seconds) Peterson and Peterson Study How long can people remember without rehearsal? What is responsible for forgetting? Time related decay or interference

Maintenance Rehearsal : Maintenance Rehearsal Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds

STM: Capacity of storage : STM: Capacity of storage Capacity—limited in number of items it can hold Millers Magical #7 (+/- 2) How can we get around this? Chunking: FB-ITW-AC-IAIB-M FBI-TWA-CIA-IBM

Slide 33 : CAPACITY OF STORAGE: SHOWING LIMITS ON CAPACITY DEMONSTRATES MILLER’S MAGIC #7 (+/- 2) PENNY IN BOX DEMONSTRATION DEMO 4

Storage:Short-Term Memory : Storage:Short-Term Memory Short-Term Memory limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2

Encoding : Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Slide 36 : Chunking is defined as organizing information by combining them into clusters. Try to remember this number: Chunking makes it easier, especially if you are interested in history… 106619451812 1066 1945 1812

Slide 37 : A friend gave you this list of ingredients for muffins. How might you rearrange the ingredients so you can remember them better? salt, eggs, raisins, wheat flour, honey, milk, margarine, nuts, white flour, baking powder, baking soda Chunking

Slide 38 : Try dividing (chunking) the ingredients into dry ingredients and liquid (or wet) ingredients. Dry Ingredients salt nuts raisins white flour wheat flour baking soda baking powder Wet or Liquid Ingredients eggs milk honey margarine

STM as Working Memory : STM as Working Memory once thought of as phonemic encoding and loss of STM meant decay Allan Baddeley research STM is more than a simplex rehearsal buffer 4 Elements of Working Memory Conclusion: STM is small capacity short duration storage STM handles a variety of functions and is more complex then previously thought

Baddeley’s 4 Elements of Working Memory : Baddeley’s 4 Elements of Working Memory Phonological Rehearsal Loop Recitation of information to temporarily hold information (ex: phone #) Visuospatial Sketchpad Temporarily hold and manipulate visual images mentally rearranging furniture in mind

Baddeley’s 4 Elements of Working Memory : Baddeley’s 4 Elements of Working Memory Executive Control System controls when to pay attention when to focus and when to divide attention reading at the park and periodically watching child Episodic Buffer Temporary and limited capacity store that interfaces with LTM and STM Integrating working memory with Go between

Slide 42 : CODING IN LTM DIEKHOFF EXPERIMENT (1987) LISTEN TO THE FOLLOWING PASSAGE. DEMO 5

LONG TERM MEMORYLTM : LONG TERM MEMORYLTM The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Why do we sometimes forget things stored in LTM? retrieval problem 2 Lines of Research on this topic Wilder Penfield Studies Flashbulb memories

PENFIELD’S LTM STUDY : PENFIELD’S LTM STUDY Canadian Neuroscientist (1960) Reported triggering long-lost memories through electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) during surgery Inferred that memories are exact playbacks of long-lost memories Major distortions and factual impossibilities in memory recall

Flashbulb Memories : Flashbulb Memories Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events. JFK shooting, Challenger Explosion, 9/11 Fade over time Recent studies show these are not completely accurate Less detailed and complete with time Often inaccurate

Long-Term Memory : Long-Term Memory Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory

Long-Term Memory : Long-Term Memory Unlimited capacity Duration—thought by some to be permanent

LTM : LTM Human memory is not as reliable as we assume it to be. Answer to permanency of LTM: No convincing evidence that it is permanent Memory is not always a matter of retrieval failure

A Simplified Memory Model : A Simplified Memory Model

ARE STM AND LTM SEPARATE? : ARE STM AND LTM SEPARATE? SM (semantic memory), STM, and LTM- is most popular view Critics Some doubt if there are really separate stores SM may not be memory at all, rather, perceptual processes at work STM isn’t all that different from LTM

ARE STM AND LTM SEPARATE? : ARE STM AND LTM SEPARATE? Thinking Before: STM=encoded phonemically LTM=encoded semantically STM Loss=decay (time-related) LTM Loss = interference Thinking Now: STM Loss= Semantic coding and interference effect

How do theorists who doubt the existence of separate memory stores view the structure of memory? : How do theorists who doubt the existence of separate memory stores view the structure of memory? Views STM as tiny and constantly changing LTM depends on activation Single, unitary, “generic” memory store governed by one set of rules. 3 stores still most popular point of view SM STM LTM

Slide 53 : Write down the number of each sentence that appears verbatim in the passage London March. DEMO 5 CONT...

Slide 54 : Few guests had come to see Silas. Now all the soft greenery of summer had gone. It was winter and Whitelands was barren. Silas Gaunt’s life had revolved around his library, his job, and his farm. Silas Gaunt had never been a farmer, but Silas inherited Whitelands from his father. Little wonder that Sials was not lonely amid his six hundred acres on the edge of the Cotswolds. Silas was a hermit and had never married. The crisp browns of autumn had also gone. But there is more to life than Schiller, Mahler, and Margaux, which trio Silas claimed as his “fellow pensioners.” Even when he left the Department and came to live here in retirement, he still let his farm manager make all the decisions. Silas lived a bleak existence, with few friends. The last snow had melted from the rock-hard ridges of the empty brown fields: crosshatched pieces of landscape where magpies, rooks, and starlings had scavenged for worms and insects.

IMPROVING RECALL: Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies : IMPROVING RECALL: Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies Clustering Tendency to remember similar or related items in groups (categories) Not chunking Chunking: counties in a state, cities in a county Clustering: all colors together, all sweet food Conceptual Hierarchy Multi-level classification system based on common properties among items Improves recall

: Minerals Platinum Silver Gold LEVEL 1 2 3 4 Aluminum Copper Lead Iron Bronze Steel Brass Sapphire Emerald Diamond Ruby Limestone Granite Marble Slate Conceptual Hierarchy and LTM

IMPROVING RECALL: Schemas and Semantic Networks : IMPROVING RECALL: Schemas and Semantic Networks Schemas organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event from previous experience BRANSFORD AND Johnston Experiment Results: People remember things consistent with their schemas Semantic Networks Nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts Collins and Loftus “Spreading activation” Thinking of a word takes you to a related word

Slide 58 : SCHEMA THE IMPORTANCE OF A SCHEMA TO MEMORY STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL HM 7-5 HM 7-3 HM 7-6 DEMO 7

Slide 59 : DEMONSTRATION OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS. LOOK AT EACH WORD DEMO 8

Slide 60 : REST

Slide 61 : TIRED

Slide 62 : AWAKE

Slide 63 : DREAM

Slide 64 : SNORE

Slide 65 : BED

Slide 66 : EAT

Slide 67 : SLUMBER

Slide 68 : SOUND

Slide 69 : COMFORT

Slide 70 : WAKE

Slide 71 : NIGHT

Semantic Networks : Semantic Networks roses tulips Flowers Favorite color red lavender daisies green purple colors Lowes paint Back room decorate

IMPROVING RECALL: Connectionist Networks and Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models : IMPROVING RECALL: Connectionist Networks and Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models Connectionist Networks PDP Models Another model, like computer model of memory Based on how neurons operate 2 in 1 (PDP’s) Connectionist Network How neural networks appear to handle information Parallel Distributed Processing Simultaneous processing of the same information that is spread across networks of neurons.

RETRIEVAL : RETRIEVAL Getting information out of memory Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon Retrieval cues Temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach (failure in retrieval) Brown and McNeil study 57% of words remembered (first letter remembered)

CUES TO HELP RETRIEVAL : CUES TO HELP RETRIEVAL Reinstating the Context of the event Context cues Reconstructing Memories Reconstructions- not mental video tape or playback May be distorted or changed Sir Frederick Bartlett (British Psychologist) was first to focus on reconstruction of memories “War of the Ghosts”

Slide 76 : IMPORTANCE OF CUES IN LONG TERM MEMORY HM 7-2 HM 7-3 HM 7-4 HOW CUES HELP IN MEMORY RETRIEVAL DEMO 9

Slide 77 : RECONSTRUCTING MEMORIES NOT MENTAL VIDEO TAPES OR PLAYBACKS SIR FREDERICK BARTLETT’S WAR OF THE GHOSTS READ TALE TWICE DEMO 10

WAR OF GHOSTS : WAR OF GHOSTS One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals and while they were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: "Maybe this is a war-party". They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming up to them. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: "What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people." One of the young men said,"I have no arrows." "Arrows are in the canoe," they said. "I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you," he said, turning to the other, "may go with them." So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water and they began to fight, and many were killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say, "Quick, let us go home: that Indian has been hit." Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts." He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac and the young man went ashore to his house and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: "Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick." He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead.

Retrieval Cues: It helps to put yourself back in the context of learning : Retrieval Cues: It helps to put yourself back in the context of learning Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater Words heard on land are best recalled on land *Godden and Baddeley research (1975) adaptation

Retrieval Cues : Retrieval Cues After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

Reconstruction and the Misinformaton Effect : Reconstruction and the Misinformaton Effect Further proof that reconstruction distorts memory recall Elizabeth Loftus (1979-1992) 3 Stages of the Misinformation Effect Stage 1-view an event Stage 2- exposed to information about event (some misleading information) Stage 3- recall of original event is tested to see if misinformation from stage 2 altered memory of original event. EX: Loftus car accident/eye witness experiment

Loftus Experiment : Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”

Loftus Results : Loftus Results

Slide 84 : SIR FREDERICK BARTLETT’S, WAR OF THE GHOSTS WRITE DOWN THE STORY THE BEST YOU CAN RECALL IT. DEMO 10 CONT...

Results of Bartlet’s Experiment : Results of Bartlet’s Experiment People: Condensed story Left out boring details Frequently changed things New elements introduced Conclusion: Reconstruction due to schema DEMO 10 CONT...

Misinformation Effect : Misinformation Effect WHY DOES THIS OCCUR? Overwriting: new misinformation takes place of original memory Interference: new misinformation interferes with retrieval Source Monitoring: Partly involved in both of above

Source Monitoring and Source Monitoring Error : Source Monitoring and Source Monitoring Error Source Monitoring Process of making attributions about the origins of memories. Marcia Johnson Memory tagged with labels like a file on a computer At time of retrieval, one has to think about where the memory came from Source Monitoring Error Memory from one source is misattributed to another source Confident in memory Common Source Monitoring Errors remember seeing something that was verbally described Cryptomnesia- inadvertent plagiarizing mixing up fiction with fact

Reality Monitoring : Reality Monitoring Maria Johnson Process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginings) “Did I take my medicine or only think to take it?” “I told myself to turn off the water on the pool, but did I?”

Cues in making reality monitoring decision : Cues in making reality monitoring decision Sensory rich information Recall the feeling of pushing the off button, or swallowing a pill Contextually rich information Visualize whether you walked down the hall or outside to the pool

FORGETTING : FORGETTING Lapses in memory Why do we forget? Especially information that we want to remember?

Forgetting : Forgetting Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the long-term memory

Retrieval : Retrieval Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

EBBINGHAUS’S FORGETTING CURVE : EBBINGHAUS’S FORGETTING CURVE Herman Ebbinghaus (1885) First to conduct scientific studies on forgetting Studied himself Nonsense Syllables Meaningless material After 14K practice repetitions of memorizing 420 lists of nonsense syllables he concluded: Most forgetting occurs very rapidly after learning FORGETTING CURVE: Graph of retention and forgetting over time Ebbinghaus’ results changed when meaningful material was learned.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve : Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice

Encoding : Encoding

The Forgetting Curve : The Forgetting Curve Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables Nonsense syllables are three letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF)

Forgetting : Forgetting Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

Forgetting : Forgetting The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

HOW DO WE MEASURE FORGETTING : HOW DO WE MEASURE FORGETTING Empiricism- In order to measure forgetting scientifically (empirically), it must be standardized and precise. Measure of Forgetting=Measure of Retention Retention- the amount of material remembered Retention interval-length of time between presentation of material to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting 3 Measure of Forgetting Recall Recognition Relearning

RECALL : RECALL Measure of retention requires subject to reproduce information on their own without cues Recall test- list of 25 words memorized/write down on blank paper Essay question that does not give cues: “Discuss the meaning and function of semantic memory”

RECOGNITION : RECOGNITION Measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options Recognition test shows 100 words/pick 25 you memorized Other tests: multiple choice, T/F, matching, recognition essay, fill in the blank, recall Most people prefer recognition to recall Lush study (1922) Recognition test results higher than recall test results.

Difficulty of Test Matters in Recognition Testing : Difficulty of Test Matters in Recognition Testing “Baby Mine” was sung in which Disney Movie? A. Fox and the Hound B. Lady and the Tramp C. Dumbo D. Sleeping Beauty “Baby Mine” was sung in which film? A. Rambo B. Apocalypse Now C. Dumbo D. Apollo 13

REALEARNING : REALEARNING Measure of retention requiring subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before.

WHY WE FORGET : WHY WE FORGET INNEFECTIVE CODING DECAY INTERFERANCE

Ineffective Coding : Ineffective Coding Psuedoforgetting- see above never encoded encoded incorrectly due to lack of attention. Phonemic Encoding Vs. Semantic Encoding- Distracted while encoding

DECAY : DECAY Decay Theory- forgetting occurs because memory trace fades with time research hasn’t proved that LTM loss= decay What critics say: time passage isn’t as influential as what happens during the time interval the amount, complexity and type of information is most important

INTERFERENCE : INTERFERENCE Competition People forget because of competing material Similarity problem more similar to material learning or interference McGeoch & McDonald (1931)Study least similar material scored higher 2 Kinds of Interference Retroactive Proactive

Two Kinds of Interference : Two Kinds of Interference Retroactive new information impairs retention of previous learning (retro=past) new interferes with old Proactive previously learned information interferes with retention of new material Old interferes with new

Forgetting as Interference : Forgetting as Interference

Forgetting : Forgetting Retroactive Interference

Forgetting : Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Retrieval Failure : Retrieval Failure Mismatch- retrieval cue not for information your searching for The Encoding Specificity Principle Tulving and Thompson 1973 Value of retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code Transfer-Appropriate Processing Learning of information should be similar to type of processing required to remember

MOTIVATED FORGETTING : MOTIVATED FORGETTING Tendency to forget things one doesn’t want to remember Freud’s ‘Unconscious’ and Repression Hypnosis Increases memory distortion while making people feel confident Dream Interpretation Highly subjective guesswork; misleading Age 3 years + older= memory recall for most

CRITICS OF MOTIVATED FORGETING : CRITICS OF MOTIVATED FORGETING Don’t believe you can create memories Believe there is no epidemic Some cases are not bogus We cannot dismiss the reports Conclusion Memory is fragile, fallible, malleable, and subjective

THE MEMORY TRACE : THE MEMORY TRACE The Biochemistry of Memory The Neural Circuitry of Memory The Anatomy of Memory

The Biochemistry of Memory : The Biochemistry of Memory Memory formation results in alterations in synaptic transmissions Specific memories depend on biochemical changes that occur at specific synapses Lines of Research Eric Kandel et al studied conditioned reflexes in a simple organism (sea slug) Manipulations that alter hormone level study

Eric Kandel and the Sea Slug Study : Eric Kandel and the Sea Slug Study Studied conditioned reflexes in a simple organism (sea slug) Specific forms of learning in slug resulted in fluctuation in the release of neurotransmitters by presynaptic neurons long lasting changes in synaptic transmission may be the neural foundation of more complex memories as well Critics Risky to generalize from sea slug to human

Hormone Manipulation Studies : Hormone Manipulation Studies Manipulations that alter hormone levels shortly after and organism has learned a new response can affect memory storage in a variety of animals. Hormonal changes can either facilitate or impair memory

Neural Circuitry of Memory : Neural Circuitry of Memory Localized Neural Circuit Research Richard F. Thompson (1989,1992) Specific memories may depend on localized neural circuits in the brain. Memories may create unique reusable pathways in the brain along which signals flow Long Term Potentiations (LTP) Research A long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway Produced LTP artificially “natural events” produce same potentiated neural circuit when a memory is formed

The Anatomy of Memory : The Anatomy of Memory A phenomenon that gives us insight into the physiological bases of memory is Organic Amnesia- extensive memory loss due to head injury Two types of amnesia Retrograde amnesia- involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia Gymnast Anterograde amnesia- involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia Lucy and Tom in 50 First Dates

Study of Anterograde Amnesia : Study of Anterograde Amnesia Deepened our understanding of the brain and memory Brenda Milner and the study of H.M. Surgery Wiped out his ability for LTM No recollection of anything since 1953 20-30 seconds retention of new information Thought to be the removal of his hippocampus but other nearby structures affected this as well Entire hippocampal region hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, and entorhinal cortex and adjacent parahippocampal region One of first areas of damage at the onset of Alzheimer’s

Slide 123 : AMNESIA VIDEO CLIP DEMO

Hippocampus: Important to LTM : Hippocampus: Important to LTM MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Are All Memories Stored in Hippocampal Region? : Are All Memories Stored in Hippocampal Region? Do these findings mean that memories are all stored in the hippocampal region and adjacent areas? Probably not. But it plays a key role in the consolidation of memories Consolidation: hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in LTM.

IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT MEMORY PHENOMENA : IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT MEMORY PHENOMENA Implicit Memory Apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering Warrington & Weiskrantz Study (1970) first to do study proving that Anterograde Amnesiacs have no LTM (replicated many times) Explicit memory Involves intentional recollection of previous experiences

Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems : Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems

Slide 128 : Why are they different? They rely on different cognitive processes in encoding and retrieval They are handled by independent memory systems (declarative and procedural)

MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEMS : MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEMS

Declarative vs. Procedural Memory: Independent Memory Systems : Declarative vs. Procedural Memory: Independent Memory Systems Declarative Factual Information Recollections of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts, and ideas Procedural (non-declarative) Actions, Skills, operations, conditional responses Riding a bike, typing, tying shoes, rules and skills TENNIS ANALOGY

Neural Basis of Declarative and Procedural Memory Systems : Neural Basis of Declarative and Procedural Memory Systems Declarative- hippocampal complex and the far-flung areas of the cortex Procedural- cerebellum and amygdala contribute

TYPES OF DECLARATIVE MEMORY SYSTEM : TYPES OF DECLARATIVE MEMORY SYSTEM Declarative memory subdivided into two parts Endel Tulving (1986, 1993) Subdivided declarative memory system into semantic memory and episodic memory Both contain factual information but Episodic- personal facts Semantic- general facts

EPISODIC MEMORY SYSTEM : EPISODIC MEMORY SYSTEM Made up of chronological, temporarily dated, recollections of personal experiences (things done, seen, heard) Function: “time travel” Re-experience past may be unique to humans Episodic: Autobiography Semantic: Encyclopedia

SEMANTIC MEMORY SYSTEM : SEMANTIC MEMORY SYSTEM Contains general knowledge not tied to the time it was learned Christmas is December 25 Dogs have four legs You don’t remember when you learned these things/ stored undated) Episodic: Autobiography Semantic: Encyclopedia

PAST AND PRESENT TYPES OF MEMORY : PAST AND PRESENT TYPES OF MEMORY Prospective versus Retrospect Harris (1984) Paper, “Remember to Do Things: A Forgotten Topic” Prospective Memory- remembers to perform actions in the future. Retrospective Memory- remember events from past or previously learned information (recall) Importance of Prospective Memory: It applies to everyday life If you don’t have it your “absent-minded” Many factors that influence prospective memory

Factors that influence prospective memory : Factors that influence prospective memory Habitual Tasks- get the mail Easier to remember than infrequent tasks Infrequent tasks- stop mail delivery for vacation Event-based Tasks- future actions triggered by a specific cue (getting a lot of mail reminds you to stop it next week) Time-Based Tasks- at a certain time, remembering to turn off oven after timer (cue) goes off and your cookies are done. Age- the older you are the more trouble you have with perspective memory

IMPROVING EVERYDAY MEMORY : IMPROVING EVERYDAY MEMORY Mnemonic Devices Verbal Visual Rehearsal Overlearning Serial Positioning Effect Distributed Practice Deep Processing

Mnemonic Devices : Mnemonic Devices VERBAL Acrostics Phrases or poems Acronym A word formed out of the letters of words or phrases Narrative Methods Stories that incorporate words Rhymes “I before E, except after C” VISUAL Link Method Forming a mental image of items to be remembers in a way that links them together Method of Loci Imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remember are associated with certain locations Keyword Method Associate a concrete word (not truth or hope) with an abstract word (like truth or hope) and generate an image to represent it.

Rehearsal : Rehearsal Practice makes retention Helps to transfer information into LTM Could also improve your understanding more meaningful= more likely to be remembered Over learning Continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it It pays to over learn topics Serial Position Effect if you are trying to memorize lists of words or numbers, beware of this effect occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle

Serial Position Effect : Serial Position Effect Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list

Slide 141 : SERIAL POSITIONING EFFECT DEMONSTRATES THE ORDER OF ITME PRESENTATION ON MEMORY. WORDS EARLY AND LATE ON A LIST ARE RECALLED WITH A HIGHER FREQUENCY THAN THOSE IN THE MIDDLE DEMO 11

Slide 142 : MALE GOAT HAMMER CLOTH FOLDERS CULTURE FAN AUGUST PHONE SYMBOL TOIL UNION CRUST BURGER MALLET DODGE TRIVIA UNEASY KITTENS CALCULATOR

Slide 143 : MALE

Slide 144 : GOAT

Slide 145 : HAMMER

Slide 146 : CLOTH

Slide 147 : FOLDERS

Slide 148 : CULTURE

Slide 149 : FAN

Slide 150 : AUGUST

Slide 151 : PHONE

Slide 152 : SYMBOL

Slide 153 : TOIL

Slide 154 : UNION

Slide 155 : CRUST

Slide 156 : BURGER

Slide 157 : MALLET

Slide 158 : DODGE

Slide 159 : TRIVIA

Slide 160 : UNEASY

Slide 161 : KITTENS

Slide 162 : CALCULATOR

Distributed Practice : Distributed Practice No Cramming Don’t cram all of your study time into an all “nighter” or 5 hours before the exam Distributing your study time over smaller amounts of time Produces better results. This is an empirical fact! Beware of interference from another course as well. Try studying for specific topics (especially those that are similar) on different days This will help your mind in its organization of facts. Day before the exam: Try to study for only that course to diminish interference.

Deep Processing : Deep Processing Comprehension is key Make sure that you fully understand the meaning of the material Depth of processing is more important than how often you go over the material KEEP IN MIND that this does not mean that you should study in huge chunks. Make material personally meaningful Retention is greater when information is well organized group topics together Writing and outlining

Slide 165 : Theme 2 - Psychology is theoretically diverse. Debates on memory storage Theme 4 – Behavior is determined by multiple causes. Cause for memory loss could be many or a combination of reasons Theme 7 – People’s experience of the world is highly subjective. Memory is influenced by selective attention What you may find interesting and remember, I may not and forget. 7 KEY THEMES

Slide 166 : VIDEO CLIPS FOR THIS CHAPTER http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDNDRDJy-vo Clive: the man without a memory= anterograde amnesia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Oteya15P94 10 second tom animation clip http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gqh2gwYDtvU&mode=related&search= Attention- basketball count how many passes