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sense organs their evolution ,structure and functioning...

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The Special Senses : The Special Senses PART 1

The Special Senses : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Special Senses Taste, smell, sight, hearing, and balance Special sensory receptors Localized – confined to the head region Receptors are not free endings of sensory neurons Special receptor cells

The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell Taste – gustation Smell – olfaction Receptors – classified as chemoreceptors Respond to chemicals

Taste – Gustation : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Taste – Gustation Taste receptors Occur in taste buds Most are found on the surface of the tongue Located within tongue papillae

Taste Buds : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Taste Buds Collection of 50-100 epithelial cells Contain three major cell types Supporting cells Gustatory cells Basal cells Contain long microvilli – extend through a taste pore

Taste Sensation and the Gustatory Pathway : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Taste Sensation and the Gustatory Pathway Four basic qualities of taste Sweet, sour, salty, and bitter A fifth taste – umami – “deliciousness” No structural difference among taste buds

Gustatory Pathway : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gustatory Pathway Taste information reaches the cerebral cortex Primarily through the facial (VII) and glossopharyngeal (IX) nerves Some taste information through the vagus nerve (X) Sensory neurons synapse in the medulla Located in the solitary nucleus

Smell (Olfaction) : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Smell (Olfaction) Receptors are part of the olfactory epithelium Olfactory epithelium composed of: Cell bodies of olfactory receptor cells Supporting cells – columnar cells Basal cells – form new olfactory receptor cells

Smell (Olfaction) : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Smell (Olfaction) Axons of olfactory epithelium Gather into bundles – filaments of the olfactory nerve Pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone Attach to the olfactory bulbs

The Eye and Vision : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Eye and Vision Visual organ – the eye 70% of all sensory receptors are in the eyes 40% of the cerebral cortex is involved in processing visual information

Accessory Structures of the Eye : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 16.5b Accessory Structures of the Eye Lacrimal apparatus – keeps the surface of the eye moist Lacrimal gland – produces lacrimal fluid Lacrimal sac – fluid empties into nasal cavity

The Fibrous Tunic : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Fibrous Tunic Most external layer of the eyeball Composed of two regions of connective tissue Sclera – posterior five-sixths of the tunic White, opaque region Provides shape and an anchor for eye muscles Cornea – anterior one-sixth of the fibrous tunic Limbus – junction between sclera and cornea Scleral venous sinus – allows aqueous humor to drain

The Vascular Tunic : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vascular Tunic The middle coat of the eyeball Composed of choroid, ciliary body, and iris Choroid – vascular, darkly pigmented membrane Forms posterior five-sixths of the vascular tunic Brown color – from melanocytes Prevents scattering of light rays within the eye Choroid corresponds to the arachnoid and pia maters

The Vascular Tunic : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vascular Tunic Ciliary body – thickened ring of tissue – encircles the lens Composed of ciliary muscle Ciliary processes – posterior surface of the ciliary body Ciliary zonule (suspensory ligament) Attached around entire circumference of the lens

The Iris : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Iris Visible colored part of the eye Attached to the ciliary body Composed of smooth muscle Pupil – the round, central opening Sphincter pupillae muscle (constrictor or circular) Dilator pupillae muscle (dilator or radial) Act to vary the size of the pupil

The Sensory Tunic (Retina) : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Sensory Tunic (Retina) Retina – the deepest tunic Composed of two layers Pigmented layer – single layer of melanocytes Neural layer – sheet of nervous tissue Contains three main types of neurons Photoreceptor cells Bipolar cells Ganglion cells

Photoreceptors : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Photoreceptors Two main types Rod cells – more sensitive to light Allow vision in dim light Cone cells – operate best in bright light Enable high-acuity, color vision Considered neurons

Regional Specializations of the Retina : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regional Specializations of the Retina Macula lutea – contains mostly cones Fovea centralis – contains only cones Region of highest visual acuity Optic disc – blind spot

Blood Supply of the Retina : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 16.10c Blood Supply of the Retina Retina receives blood from two sources Outer third of the retina – supplied by capillaries in the choroid Inner two-thirds of the retina – supplied by central artery and vein of the retina

Internal Chambers and Fluids : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Internal Chambers and Fluids The lens and ciliary zonules divide the eye Posterior segment (cavity) Filled with vitreous humor Clear, jelly-like substance Transmits light Supports the posterior surface of the lens Helps maintain intraocular pressure

Internal Chambers and Fluids : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Internal Chambers and Fluids Anterior segment Divided into anterior and posterior chambers Anterior chamber – between the cornea and iris Posterior chamber – between the iris and lens Filled with aqueous humor Renewed continuously Formed as a blood filtrate Supplies nutrients to the lens and cornea

The Eye as an Optical Device : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Eye as an Optical Device Structures in the eye bend light rays Light rays converge on the retina at a single focal point Light bending structures (refractory media) The lens, cornea, and humors Accommodation – curvature of the lens is adjustable Allows for focusing on nearby objects

Visual Pathways : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Visual Pathways Most visual information travels to the cerebral cortex Responsible for conscious “seeing” Other pathways travel to nuclei in the midbrain and diencephalon

Visual Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Visual Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex Pathway begins at the retina Light activates photoreceptors Photoreceptors signal bipolar cells Bipolar cells signal ganglion cells Axons of ganglion cells exit eye as the optic nerve

Visual Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Visual Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex Optic tracts send axons to: Lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus Synapse with thalamic neurons Fibers of the optic radiation reach the primary visual cortex

Visual Pathways to Other Parts of the Brain : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Visual Pathways to Other Parts of the Brain Some axons from the optic tracts Branch to midbrain Superior colliculi Pretectal nuclei Other branches from the optic tracts Branch to the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Disorders of the Eye and Vision: Macular Degeneration : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disorders of the Eye and Vision: Macular Degeneration Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) Involves the buildup of visual pigments in the retina Dry Wet

Disorders of the Eye and Vision: Retinopathy : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disorders of the Eye and Vision: Retinopathy Retinopathy in diabetes Vessels have weak walls – causes hemorrhaging and blindness

Disorders of the Eye and Vision: Trachoma : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disorders of the Eye and Vision: Trachoma Trachoma – contagious infection of the conjunctiva

The Ear: Hearing and Equilibrium : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Ear: Hearing and Equilibrium The ear – receptor organ for hearing and equilibrium Composed of three main regions Outer ear – functions in hearing Middle ear – functions in hearing Inner ear – functions in both hearing and equilibrium

The Outer (External) Ear : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Outer (External) Ear Composed of: The auricle (pinna) Helps direct sounds External acoustic meatus Lined with skin Contains hairs, sebaceous glands, and ceruminous glands Tympanic membrane Forms the boundary between the external and middle ear

The Middle Ear : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Middle Ear The tympanic cavity A small, air-filled space Located within the petrous portion of the temporal bone Medial wall is penetrated by: Oval window Round window Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory or eustachian tube) Links the middle ear and pharynx

The Middle Ear : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 16.19 The Middle Ear Ear ossicles – smallest bones in the body Malleus – attaches to the eardrum Incus – between the malleus and stapes Stapes – vibrates against the oval window

The Inner (Internal) Ear : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Inner (Internal) Ear Inner ear – also called the labyrinth Lies within the petrous portion of the temporal bone Bony labyrinth – a cavity consisting of three parts Semicircular canals Vestibule Cochlea

The Inner (Internal) Ear : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Inner (Internal) Ear Membranous labyrinth Series of membrane-walled sacs and ducts Fit within the bony labyrinth Consists of three main parts Semicircular ducts Utricle and saccule Cochlear duct

The Inner (Internal) Ear : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Inner (Internal) Ear Membranous labyrinth (continued) Filled with a clear fluid – endolymph Confined to the membranous labyrinth Bony labyrinth is filled with perilymph Continuous with cerebrospinal fluid

The Vestibule : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vestibule The central part of the bony labyrinth Lies medial to the middle ear Utricle and saccule – suspended in perilymph Two egg-shaped parts of the membranous labyrinth House the macula – a spot of sensory epithelium

The Vestibule : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vestibule Macula – contains receptor cells Monitor the position of the head when the head is still Contains columnar supporting cells Receptor cells – called hair cells Synapse with the vestibular nerve

The Semicircular Canals : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Semicircular Canals Lie posterior and lateral to the vestibule Anterior and posterior semicircular canals Lie in the vertical plane at right angles Lateral semicircular canal Lies in the horizontal plane

The Semicircular Canals : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Semicircular Canals Semicircular duct – snakes through each semicircular canal Membranous ampulla – located within bony ampulla Houses a structure called a crista ampullaris Cristae contain receptor cells of rotational acceleration Epithelium contains supporting cells and receptor hair cells

The Cochlea : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Cochlea The cochlear duct (scala media) – contains receptors for hearing Lies between two chambers The scala vestibuli The scala tympani The vestibular membrane – the roof of the cochlear duct The basilar membrane – the floor of the cochlear duct

The Cochlea : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Cochlea The cochlear duct (scala media) – contains receptors for hearing Organ of Corti – the receptor epithelium for hearing Consists of: Supporting cells Inner and outer hair cells (receptor cells)

Equilibrium and Auditory Pathways : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Equilibrium and Auditory Pathways The equilibrium pathway Transmits information on the position and movement of the head Most information goes to lower brain centers (reflex centers) The ascending auditory pathway Transmits information from cochlear receptors to the cerebral cortex

Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Motion Sickness : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Motion Sickness Motion sickness – carsickness, seasickness Popular theory for a cause – a mismatch of sensory inputs

Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Meniere’s Syndrome : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Meniere’s Syndrome Meniere’s syndrome – equilibrium is greatly disturbed Excessive amounts of endolymph in the membranous labyrinth Normal Meniere’s

Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Conduction Deafness : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Conduction Deafness Deafness Conduction deafness Sound vibrations cannot be conducted to the inner ear Ruptured tympanic membrane, otitis media, otosclerosis Normal tympanic membrane Otitis media Ruptured tympanic membrane

Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Sensorineural Deafness : Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Disorders of Equilibrium and Hearing: Sensorineural Deafness Deafness Sensorineural deafness Results from damage to any part of the auditory pathway mild severe